· In Philosophy, he was scientific in his approach. Some of his most important treatises are that, he denied that any man had privileged access to intelligence. He also said that: "Reason alone can enable us to know God".
Abu Naser Al-Farabi
(Alpbarabius or Avennasar)
870- 950 A.D.
Political science , philosophy & music (Turkistan)
· Abu Naser Mohammad Ibn Al-Farabi, was born in Turkistan in 870 A.D.
· He was of Turkish origin and was brought to Baghdad by his father to seek higher education. He taught in Baghdad.
· Al-Farabi was a political scientist whose main interest was the happiness of the community. He discussed how the community must be ordered so that its members attain happiness as citizens, rather than isolated human beings. This theme is later echoed by Rousseau.
· One of his major works is "Ara Ahi Al-Madina Al-Fadila" (The views of people living in a virtuous city) is a significant contribution to sociology and political science. It is analogous, although not similar, to Plato's "Republic".
· He saw the Qur'an as the poetic expression of truths known more directly through the insights of philosophers.
He defined the opinions that members of the community must hold, and actions they must perform, to attain happiness in this world and the next.
· He was a prolific writer and although many books have been lost. 117 are known to exist.
43 on logic
11 on metaphysics
7 on ethics
7 on political science
17 on music
11 are commentaries, mainly on works by Aristotle.
* Al-Farabi was responsible for translating Greek philosophy into the Arabic language.
Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi (Abul Casis)
963- 1013 A.D.
Physician & Surgeon
Zahra, Spain (Andalusia)
· Abul Qasim Khalaf Ibn Al-abbas Al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis in the West, was born in 963 A.D. in Zahra, not far from Cordova, Spain.
· Best known for his early and original work in surgery, he also published a medical encyclopedia, Al-Tasrif, which is composed of thirty volumes covering different aspects of medical science.
· He was also the inventor of several surgical instruments including:
a- An instrument of the examination of the internal ear.
b- An instrument of the examination of the Urethra.
c- An instrument for removal of foreign bodies from the throat.
* He specialized in the use of cautery, and used it in as many as 50 different operations.
* Al-Zahrawi was also knowledgeable in dentistry.
* He published on the problem of non-aligned teeth and how to rectify it, and the use of artificial teeth made from animal bones.
* He was the first to describe the disorder to Hemophila.
* According to DR. Cambell (History of Arab Medicine), his principles of medical science surpassed those of Galen in the European medical curriculum.
Gerard of Cremona (1114- 1187) translated "Al-Tasrif" into Latin. It was than translated into Hebrew, French and English. It was used in Venice (1497), Basel (1541) and at Oxford (1778).
· Al-Tasrif" was taught for approximately five centuries in Europe.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
980- 1037 A.D. (Turkistan)
Philosophy Medicine, Mathematics
Astronomy, Music, Geology & Physics
· Abu Ali Al-Hussain Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is the Aristotle of the Islamic World.
· Born at Afshana near Bukhara (Turkistan), where he received his early education and studied the Qur'an. He traveled to Bukhara, Ray and finally to Hamadan, where he died.
· He was a prolific reader and worked for various dignitaries as an administrator and physician by day. In the evening, he gathered students around him for various philosophical and scientific discussions.
· Medical Works: His most famous work is Al-Qanun Fi'l-Tibb "The canon of Medicine", a systematic encyclopedia in which he described some 760 drugs and the diseases that they could cure. This work was very popular in the Islamic World. It was translated and studied in European universities for centuries.
· His second book, Kitab al Shifa "The Book of Healing" deals with logic, natural sciences, psychology and the art of healing.
· Physics: he wrote several books on the different forms of energy, heat, and defined concepts such as: force, vacuum, and infinity. He explained the interconnection between time and motion. He discussed the specific gravity of certain elements and invented an air thermometer.
· Geology: He wrote a book describing the various minerals.
· Astronomy: He made several astronomical observations.
· Philosophy: For Avicenna, philosophy was the true path of understating. He discussed the dualism of mind and matter. He saw matter as passive, and creation as the act of instilling existence into this passive substance. "only in the divine are being existence one".
Omar Al-Khayyam
1044- 1123 A.D.
Poet, Philosopher, Mathematician & Astronomer
· Ghiyath Aldin Abulfateh Omar Ibn-Ibrahim Al-Khayyam (Al-Khayyam means tent-maker).
· He was educated in Mishapur and lived there and in Samarqnad.
· He was probably the first "Ecistentialist" philosopher and published his poetry in verses of four lines (Rubaiyat= Quatrains). In 1839 Edward Fitzgerald published an English translation of his Rubaiyat and they have now become one of the most popular classics of world literature.
· He was ordered by the Sultan to develop a correct Solar Calendar. Omar introduced a calendar that was remarkably accurate and was named Al-Tarikh Al-Jalall, it had an error of one day in 3770 years.
· This was superior to the Gregorian Calendar which has an error of one day in 3330 years.
· He made several contributions to Algebra and Geometry that were used in later years by Descartes.
· Omar wrote 10 books and 30 monographs. His most famous are: four in Mathematics.
Three in physics three is Metaphysics
One in Algebra one in Geometry
· Despite being an accomplished Scientist, he is better known for his Rubaiyat
Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali
1058- 1128 A.D.
Philosopher, theology, Astronomer & Sufi Khorasan, Iran
· Abu Hamid Ibn Mohammad Al-Tusi Al-Shafii Al-Ghazali, was born in Khorasan, Iran in 1058 A.D.
· His father died when he was very young, but he continued his education in Nishapur and Baghdad.d he was appointed Professor at the Nizamiyah University of Baghdad. This was the most reputed center of learning in the golden era of Islamic history.
· Ghazali's major contributions are in religion (sufism) and philosophy. He rid Sufism of its excesses, and he stressed the logic associated with mathematics and exact sciences. However, he discussed the inability of reason to comprehend the absolute and the infinite.
· His immortal books include: Tahafat Al-Falasifa (The incoherence (pettiness) of the Philosophers) – Ihya Al-U'lum Al-Islamia (The revival of the Islamic sciences).
- He also wrote a summary of astronomy.
- Several of his arguments were used by St. Thomas Aquinas.
- He is one of the greatest theologians of Islam.
Al-Idrisi
1099- 1166 A.D. Cueta, Spain
Botanist & Geographer
· Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Abudullah Ibn Idris Al-Quatabi Al-Hasani, was born in Cueta, Spain in 1099 A.D.
· He was educated in Cordova and traveled far and wide in connection with his studies. He settled in Palemo, Sicily, in the court of the Christian king Roger II.
· He was a botanist and his major studies were in medicinal plants. He wrote several books on the subject notably "Kitab Al-Jami fi Sifat Ashtat Al-Nabata" (A compendium of the properties of plants).
· He made original contributions in geography and published two major encyclopedias. The first was called "Al-Kitab Al-Rujari" (Roger's book), also called "Nuzha Al-Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq" (The delight of him who desires to journey through the horizons).
· The second geographical encyclopedia was called "Rawd ul-nas wa Nuzhat al-nafs" (Pleasure of men and delight of souls).
· His works were translated into Latin and remained popular in the East and West.
Ibn Rushd (Averroes)
1128- 1198 A.D.
Philosophy, Theology, Astronomy,
Llaw & Medicine
· Abu Al-Walid Mohammed Ibn Rushd.
· He was born in Cordoba (Andalusia, now Spain). He came from a long line of aristocratic and distinguished kadi's or Judges. He was a great authority on the work of Aristotle, and made several comments on his work. In Europe, he was known as "The Commentator".
· Ibn Rushd is a very powerful philosopher who developed the theory of "Two Truths". In his doctrine he believes that there is one truth for philosophers which is philosophy – and another for the masses which is religion. Ibn Rushd sought to harmonize the Qur'an and revelations with philosophy and logic. For this he was persecuted and left Spain for Morocco. Ibn Rushd quoted several verses from the Qur'an exhorting believers to think for themselves. He contended that religion contained philosophical truths but explained in allegorical terms. By allegorical interpretations, a philosopher might advance to purer knowledge, white the masses hold to the literal sense, His most famous book it "Tahafat al-Tahafa" (Incoherence of the incoherent).
· He was also a Lawyer and judge.
· In medicine, he wrote on the diagnoses, cure and prevention of disease in a book called Kitab Al-Kulyat Fi Al-Tibb-called in Europe "Colliget".
Ibn Al Nafis
1213- 1288 A.D.
Physician
Damascus, Syria
Alaa-al-din Abu Al-Hasan Ali Ibn-abi-al-Hazam al-Aarashi al-Damashau al-Masri, was born in 1213 A.D. in Damascus, Syria.
· After acquiring degrees in medicine and jurisprudence, he moved to Cairo and was appointed principal at the famous Masri Hospital. He also served at the Mansuriya Hospital.
· His major contribution to medicine lies in his description of the constitution of the lungs, and the exchange of gases that occurs inside the alveoli.
· He also described the coronary circulation and the function of the coronary arteries.
· His most voluminous book was "Al-Shami Fi Al-Tibb" (An encyclopedia of medicine), which was 300 volumes, but was not completed at the time of his death.
· He also a book on the effect of diet on the health of an individual, which was a very original Contribution. It was entitled "Kitab Al-Mukhtar Fi Al-Aghziya" (Encyclopedia of nutrition).
Ibn Khaldun
1332- 1395 A.D.
History, Soclogy, philosophy & Political Science
· His name was Abdel Rahman Ibn Mohammed, but was generally known Ibn Khaldun.
· His parents were originally Yemenite Arabs who had settled in Spain, but after the fall of Seville, had migrated to Tunisia.
· He was born in Tunisia. He lived in Tunisia, Egypt Morocco (Fez), Alegria, and finally Cairo where he spent the last 24 years of his life.
· He was appointed as the Chief Malakite Judge and lectured at Al-Azhar University. He was controversial and was removed from his high judicial office five times.
· His chief contribution lies in the philosophy of history and sociology. He wrote renown book "Muqaddimah" (Prologue). This classical work identified the psychological, economic environmental and social factors that contributed to the advancement of woman and the currents of history.
· He described how group feelings, Al-Asabiyya, gave rise to the ascent of a new civilization.
· He identified the rhythmic repetition of the rise and fall in human civilization, and analyzed factors contributing to this.
· He revolutionized the science of history and laid the foundation for the study of Social Sciences (Umraniyat).
· He was an acute observer of human nature. He noted people's tendency to admire and respect power. "Conquered people often adopt the habits and customs of the conquerors, even to the extent of adopting their dress".
· He noted that city dwellers tend to fall into decadence and moral corruption, whereas the nomads are preserved by the arduous nature of their daily lives.
· He wrote Kitab Al-l'bar which dealt with the history of the Arabs, Jews Berbere and Europeans.
· Al-Tassrif was his autobiography.
· He is considered the Father of Social and Political Science, and his views paved the way for Machiavelli's "The Prince" and Hehal's views on history.
Crusaders and Mongols
· The Crusaders:
The crusaders were a turning point in relations between the Moslems and Christian Europe. The Moslems armies and fleets had achieved resounding victories marking a golden age for Islam. The conquests of Andalusia and the island of Sicily in southern Italy were the climax of the Moslem expansion. However, hen the second Abbasid Dynasty became weak, the Europeans took the offensive.
Several crusades were successful in seizing the greater part of Syria and threatening Egypt and Tunisia. There has always been debate among historians concerning the genuine reasons behind the crusades. The reality is that there were various reasons that belied the obvious religious one: that the Christian Europe wanted to restore the holy sites in Jerusalem to Christianity. In fact economic reasons, on a large scale, represented the aim of Christian Europe to control the trade routes linking the East to the West which were under the Moslem flag. The strong spirit of adventure among European princes and their knights urged them to conquer the Moslem world.
The diffuse disputes among the European states, Pope Urban II encouraged the kings of Europe to undertake a military expedition to invade the Moslem World. The knights of Europe thought that this would give them an opportunity to display their heroism. Besides, the idea of a crusade gave the lower classes hopes of ridding themselves of the feudal system, reversing their poor standard of living, as well as escape from the spread of disease and famine. Eventually, the crusaders established a kingdom in Jerusalem as well as three other crusader states in 'Antioch, Tripoli and Odessa.
The Moslem's defeat was attributed to the weakness of the Abbasids and the disputes between the Moslem states which undermined their ability to face the crusader threat. However, a number of rulers in Aleppo and Mosul such as Imad Al-Din Zangi and his son Nur Al-Din Mahmoud were able to halt the Crusader advance in Syria. They launched several attacks against the crusaders and managed to recapture Odessa in 1144 A.D.
· The Crusaders A successful jihad (Holy War) was launched by Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem. The Mamluk sultans were also able to drive the crusaders out of Syria.
· Even that occurred during the Crusades:
The following events are representative of several crusades launched by Christian Europe and met by the Moslems. Both parities experienced victories and deafest.
· The first crusades (490 A.H./ -1096 A.D.)
The first crusades is divided into two phases. First was the expedition of the masses, followed by the Expedition of the Nobles. The first was not very well-organized. It was mainly made up of those motivated by religious fevor to restore Jerusalem to the Christians.
This expedition was led by Peter the Hermit and Bishop Edimar de Monte. Because the soldiers were poor and ill-equipped, they plundered as they advanced through-Eastern Europe on their journey east. Consequently, the inhabitants of those countries rebelled against the crusaders and killed most of them.
Those who survived headed for Constantinople and then Asia Minor. The expedition of the Nobles, having achieved its goals, established four crusader kingdoms in Jerusalem. Tripoli, Antioch and Odessa. The Moslem reaction was manifest in Imad Al-Din Zangi, the Atabeg of Mosul, who stopped the crusaders' advances and succeeded in capturing Diar Bakr in 524 A.H./1129 A.D. He also attacked Damascus in 534 A.H. / 1139 A.D.
· The second Cruseade (539 A.H./1145 A.D.)
The second crusades set out after Imad Al-Din Zangi had succeeded in recapturing Odessa. The crusader armies gathered in Antioch under the command of Conrad III. Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII, King of France, and headed for Odessa. Imad Al-Din Zangi was triumphant in repelling their armies. His son Nur Al-Din Mahmoud unified all Moslem forces and recaptured Antioch in 559 A.H./ 1163 A.D., halting the crusader advance towards Northern Iraq.
· The third Crusade (583A.H./ 1187 A.D.)
The third crusade was led by three European kings: Fredrick Barbarossa the Emperor of Germany Philip Augustus, King of France, and Richard the Lion-Hearted, king of England.
The aim of this crusade was to recapture the cities and ports seized by Saladin.
· The Treaty of Al-Ramlah:
The Emperor Frederick Barbraossa was drowned in Asia Minor while still on his way to Syria. Disputes between the kings of France and England enabled Saladin to recapture Jerusalem. Richard the Lion-Hearted saw no alternative but negotiation. Thus he and Saladin concluded the treaty of Al-Ramlah in 588 A.H./ 1192 A.D. by which Moslems retained Jerusalem.
After the rise of the Ayyubids in Syria and Egypt, Saladin consolidated the Moslem front and confronted the crusaders.
· Among his important achievements were:
Aborting the attempt made by Arnat, the prince of Antioch, Shaubak, Jordan and Kerak, to seize the Moslem holy sites in the Hijaz in 577 A.H./ 1181 A.D.
· the seizure of the Fortress of Kerak in 582 A.H./ 1186 A.D., thus securing trade routes between Syria and Egypt.
· Defeating the crusaders at the battle of Hattin in 583 A.H./ 1187 A.D. and capturing the king of Jerusalem.
· The seizure of Tiberias, Acre, Caesarea, Haifa, Jaffa, Sidon and other coastal cities, as well as, many fortresses and castles.
· The Fourth Crusade (595 A.H./1198A.D.)
After Jerusalem fell to the Moslems, disturbances erupted among the Christians of Europe Pope innocent III preached a crusade to recover Jerusalem, the expedition conquered Constantinople in 600 A.H./ A.D. then a part of the army headed for Syria, joined the crusaders there and decided to invade Egypt. They raided Rosetta and Fuwwah but failed to seize them.
· The Children's Crusade (608 A.H./ 1212 A.D.)
Due to the failure of the earlier crusade to recapture Jerusalem, discontent prevailed among the Christian in Europe. A charismatic child alleged that he was divinely entrusted to command an army of children to recover Jerusalem. This legend spread among German and French children Clergymen gathered a huge number of children who headed for Italian ports to travel to the East. It was said that slave merchants betrayed the children and sold them as slaves.
· The fifth Crusade (614A.H./ 1218 A.D.)
The fifth crusade was headed by Jan Beryn, king of Palestine, who attempted to seize Egypt in order to secure his kingdom. Due to the illness of Al-Kamil, king of Egypt, Damietta fell to the crusaders in 615 A.H./ 1219A.D.
The crusaders next marched to the city of Faraskur at the time of the Nile flood. The Egyptians opened the dams and flooded the area, allowing Al-Malik Al-Kamil's to attack the crusaders and defeat them. Thus the Moslems recaptured Damietta in 618 A.H./1221 A.D. and seized numerous battleships and weapons as spoils of war.
· The sixth crusade (625A.H./ 1218 A.D.)
The sixth crusade was led by Fredrick II, the German Emperor who was encouraged by the Pope to retake Jerusalem. This expedition gained a diplomatic conquest. The emperor corresponded with the Ayyubid sultan. Al-Malik Al-Kamil, a weak sultan disabled by illness and at odds with members of the Ayyubid family. Al-Malik Al-Kamil agreed to conclude a peace treaty with the German emperor when he arrived in Palestine.
The treaty provided for the restitution of Jerusalem of Fredrick II on condition that the Aqsa Mosque remained under Moslem control. It was a humiliation treaty for Moslems.
· The Seventh Crusade (647 A.H./ 1249 A.D.)
The seventh crusade was led by Louis IX, king of France who known as "Saint Louis. He hoped to seize Egypt because of its strategic location and its commercial and military importance. The crusaders easily seized Damietta as a result of Al-Malik Al-Salih Najm Al-Din's illness. They also advanced towards Mansura and Cairo.
After Al-Malik Al-Sallih died, his wide Shajar Al-Dur concealed his death to keep the soldiers in high spirits. She confronted the crusaders with the assistance of Izz Al-Din Aybeg, the commander of the Mamluk army. The crusaders were defeated in Faraskur and Louis IX was captured and imprisoned in Mansura in 647 A.H./1250 A.D.Louis IX was released in return for a huge ransom. Afterwards Luis IX tried to invade Tunisia but felt off his horse resulting in his death.
· The End of the Crusades:
The European kings were preoccupied with internal struggle which halted further expeditions to the Moslem East. At the same time, a powerful government emerged in Syria and Egypt. i.e. The Mamluks, who took over the responsibility of Jihad and determined to rid the Middle East of crusaders.
· The Results of the Crusades:
The crusades were considered on episode in a chain of conflicts between Moslems and Europeans which lasted for about two centuries.
· They revealed the deteriorating condition in the Islamic countries which now made defensive rather than offensive stands. This was due to the political disunity which befell the Islamic states after the rise of the Fatimids in Egypt, the Ummayads in Andalusia and their rivalry with the Abbasids.
· The crusades resulted in the rise of Moslem military states such as the Atabegs, the Ayyubids and the Mamluks. Some of these states tried to gain the allegiance of the Abbasids, others, such as the Mamluks, tried to restore the caliphate in Egypt after the fall of the Abbasids. The Crusades had disastrous effects on the economy of the Moslem East due to widespread destruction and bloodshed. Trade witnessed a period of recession after the European controlled international trade.
· With the seizure of Acre, Tyre, Haifa and Beirut by the Sultan Khalil Ibn Qalawun in 691 A.H./ 1291 A.D., the crusaders were entirely driven out of Syria.
· The Circassians Mamluks invaded Cyprus and Rhodes to drive out the Hospitallers and Templars. Their efforts were not completely successful.
· The most important achievements of Mamluks were:
· Baybars seized the Fortress of Kerak in 622A.H./ 1263 A.D. and Caesarea, Arsuf and Safad in the year 664A.H./ 1265A.D. He also conquered Jaffa, Antionch and the Fortress of the Kurds two years later.
· Sultan Qalawun blockaded and eventually seized the port Latakia and captured Tripoli.
· The crusades led to the collapse of Arab power and the emergence of the Turkish Chorazmians and kurds. Intellectual and scientific advances were replaced by conservative Sunni and Sufi trends. The zenith of Islamic Arab civilization was over.
· Europe benefited from Moslem Arab civilization. As a result of more the two centuries of contact with Moslems, Europeans of the Middle Ages were strongly influenced by Islamic civilization.
Moreover, Islamic art, literature and philosophy were introduced to Europe and greatly contributed to the European Renaissance.
The Battle of Hattin
September 1187 A.D.
· In 1099, the first crusades had captured the city of Jerusalem and had slain most of the Arab Inhabitants.
· In September 187, Saladin and his army looked over Jerusalem and decided it was too fortified to be attacked.
· Instead Saladin attacked the town of Tiberias where Raymond of Tripoli's wife (Countess Eshiva) Lived in a fortress.
· This served to draw the crusaders out of Jerusalem. The Moslem army advanced out of the valley and took up position in the small village of Hattin. On both sides were two hills known as the Horns of Hattin.
· Saladin divided his army into a center which he commanded and two wings on the two hills.
· Saladin then retreated and the crusaders followed, and when they passed between the tw3o hills they were attacked.
· Between Jerusalem and Hattin the road was 25 Kilometers long with no water. The only water lay behind Saladin's army.
· Along the road, the crusades wearing their heavy armour in the summer heat were exhausted. They were also harassed by the Moslem arches.
· The armies met 3 kilometers south-west of Hattin. After discharging a hail of arrows, the Moslems charged. The hand to hand fighting was merciless.
· Saladin ordered his men to attack the horses. After the battle there were more dead horses than dead knights. A general description of the knights was: "clothed from head to foot with amour, he resemble a block of iron. He is not affected by repeated blows, but as soon as his horse is killed, the knights is thrown over and captured".
· 200 Templars and Hospitallers were killed, and finally the crusaders surrendered.
· Saladin laid seize to Jerusalem, and then offered the citizens a chance to leave the city peacefully and take their belonging if they paid a ransom. They city surrendered and Saladin entered with his army in October 1187 A.D.
· Reference: "Saladin in his time" – P.H. Newby, Dorset Press, N. Y.
Salah Al-Din Al-Ayyubi "Saladin"
1137- 1193 A.D.
* Saladin is probably the best-known of the Islamic military because of his involvement in the crusades.
* He was of Kuridish origin, bon in the city of Mosul in present day Iraq, on September 19, 1137 A.D.
* He was an excellent example of the "Noble enemy". He was considered so noble and chivalrous that it was popularly suppose by the French that he had a French mother. The English though she must have been English.
* He became Christendom's favorite Moslem. Dante gave him favorable mention in "The Divine Comedy".
* He was a Moslem Leader who released prisoners, pardoned enemies and gave away the wealth that fell into his hands.
* At the time, Egypt and Syria were under the domain of the Fatimids, out of the sphere of the Abbasids in Baghdad.
Nur Al-Din was the chief administration in Syria, and Installed Ayyub (Arabic for Job), the father of Saladin, as governor of Baalabek (Ledanon).
· When trouble broke out in Egypt, Nur Al-Din dispatched Shirkuh (Saladin's uncle) and Saladin (26 years old) to quell the rebellion in Egypt. At Ashmunein, the Moslems central army was led by Saladin and they defeated the Frankish – Egyptian army ending the Fatimid reign. They entered Cairo with no resistance.
· Saladin's uncle, Shrikuh, died and Saladin at age 30, united the forces of Egypt, Syria and Yemen against the crusaders.
· He was respected not only for his military strength, but also for his fairmess and generosity. After the battle of Hattin. Jerusalem surrendered. The Moslems took over the city in an orderly manner. There was no looting or violence.
· The evacuation of the Christian population went on for 40 days. Ransom was fixed at 10 dinars for a man, 5 for a woman and one for a child.
· Thousands who could not find the money were released, especially the older people.
· The patriarch Heraclius and his wife paid 15 dinars and took cartloads of the riches with them including chalices, monstrance's, gold plates and carpets and money. All told the church property that was taken was believed to be worth 200.000 dinars.
· After the battle of Hattin, Saladin with the United Arab army continued to fight the crusaders for another 6 years.
· On March 4.1193 A.D. Saladin died of a fever and intestinal aliment. He was 55 years old.
· He died penniless- no house, no goods, not even money for his funeral. At the time of his death he was truly mourned by his people.
· He was buried in Damascus next to the Ummayad mosque.
· When Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany visited Damascus in 1898, he had the neglected tomb of Saladin repaired, and then built him a new tomb.
· Saladin will always live in the hearts of Arabs and demonstrate what a united Arab front can do.
Islamic Arts
There are many arts that are of Islamic origin. These includes:
(i) Ceramics and Glazing. (vii) Perfume making
(ii) Calligraphy (viii) Ivory work
(iii) Woodwork and Marquetry (ix) Carpet making
(iv) Metalwork and jewelley (Silver) (x) Literature
(v) Glasswork (xi) Music
(vi) Embroidery (xii) Architecture
· Although various art works were present throughout the ages, they flourished during the Fatimid era, the Abbasid dynasty and the time of the Mamluks.
· Although the arts flourished in all Islamic countries, they were much more developed in Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Persia (during the Abbasid reign), and Andalusia (Spain).
· The earliest art from of the Arabs was poetry. Even in Pre-Islamic times they had competitions for poetry.
Art of Islam
Glazing:
Pottery is porous (water can seep through it). To make a pot non-porous it has to be glazed. This is done by covering the port with a glaze (a specially prepared mixture which becomes a thin, glass-like layer when the pot is fired in the kiln for a second time). The glaze can be quite ornate.
Manufacture of Tiles:
Most of the buildings in the Arab World are made of bricks. Bricks are made of earth and clay, which are either dried in the sun of fired in a kiln. Mosques are decorated with glazed pottery tiles. These tiles are made in carefully planned shapes so that when they are put together they form beautiful and intricate. Beautiful tile is often used to decorate domes fountains and prayer-niches.
Plaster carvings:
Plaster consists of time, sand and a fine white powder called gypsum. It is used in buildings to decorate the walls and ceilings.
Plaster is a white paste when mixed with water. Before the plaster becomes hard, it can be carved into shapes and patterns. Window screen can be made of caved plaster. This softens the light and keeps out the heat.
Wood work
This is an ancient Islamic craft Palm trees grow all over the Islamic world. The wood is used for making doors and beams. The leaves are used to cover roofs and are woven into baskets or simple mats.
Trees are not common in the Arab World. The olive tree has a very hard wood which can be used to make bowls and small pieces of furniture.
Mulberry trees are often used for making musical instruments. Cedar trees are grown in the mountains of Lebanon. Their wood is beautiful reddish color, and they are used in making expensive furniture and marquetry.
Marquetry: different kids of wood are used in marquetry. Small slices of different kinds of wood of different colors are glued together in a carefully way to form a pattern. Board games, chess and backgammon, are made in this fashion. More complicated forms of marquetry also include tiny pieces of metal, bone, ivory or mother-of-bearl. The best woodwork comes from Syria.
Metal work
Metal like gold, silver, tin, zinc, and iron are found mixed with earth and rock. The metal must be heated until they melt to remove the impurities.
Copper can be hammered into various shapes, especially plates, which were very popular in Syria and Egypt. All the armoury-swords, daggers, axes, shields were made of iron-and then inlaid with silver and gold.
Jewelry is also made of gold and silver. This is especially true for earrings, necklaces, bracelets and anklets.
Various pots and jugs were made of iron, steel and copper in the shape of animals. This was common at the time of the Mamluks.
Glass
When sand is melted it forms glass Sand contains silica, which when mixed with lime, wood ash or various minerals-gives glass different colors.
The hot molten glass can be shaped by moulding it or by blowing air through a tube.
Colored glass is used to make drinking glasses, mosque lamps and jugs.
The painted glass can be used for windows. The pattern may be held together in a framework of wood or plaster.
Perfume and incense
The Islamic countries, especially the Arab countries, are known for their love of perfume.
Arabia is the home of two kinds of trees used in incense. The gum from these threes is used in making myrrh and frankincense, which when burnt on hot charcoal, produce a wonderful, scented smoke. The ancient Egyptians used myrrh and frankincense in embalming, to remove the foul smell from the body.
Spices from the Far East, and flowers such as jasmine, rose and orange blossom, were distilled and the essence extracted. The dealers in perfume were called Attareen and were very popular and successful merchants.
Calligraphy
Calligraphy is "beautiful handwriting" whereas many European languages are written beautifully. They are done so only in important documents or similar circumstances. In Islam, calligraphy was an art in itself and was used not only in documents, but also in porcelain and in architectural design, in carpets, metal works. Textiles and even coins.
There are several reasons why calligraphy became such an important art form in Islam.
Early Moslems tended to oppose figural art (and in some cases all art) as distracting the people from the worship of God.
Arabic is the official language of the Qur'an. It became the national language of North Africa and the Middle East. The language of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan are all written in the Arabic alphabet, as was the language of Turkey until some 50 years ago. It is also used in Kashmir, Malaysia, Somalia and Tanzania. Since Moslems are people of the Book, it was acceptable to glorify the written word.
Arabic language did not lend itself easily to printing. Thus, long after Guttenburg and the printing press, book in Arabic, and especially the Qur'an, were handwritten.
Moslem artists, who were forbidden to depict human or animal forms, resorted to calligraphy and geometric and floral- now known as Arabesque.
Calligraphy flourished during the Ummayad era, and it first began to be systematized during the Abbasids. It was, however, in Ottoman Turkey that calligraphy attained its highest development.
There are eight forms of calligraphy:
(i) Kufic: the earliest form, where the script is written at right angles to the line.
(ii) Thuluth: where the script is written all the letters joined, so that the entire phrase is written without lifting the pen from the paper.
(iii) Naskhi: the rounded script.
(IV) Ruq'ah: this is now used in everyday script in most of the Arab world.
(v) Ta'liq: Persian script, graceful and delicate.
(vi) Diwani, and Royal Diwani: developed by Ottoman calligraphers and used for official government business.
(vii) Tughra: this was the official monogram or insignia of the Ottoman sultans. It has elongated vertical drokes.
(viii) Muthanna: this means "double" in Arabic, where each half of the design is mirror of the other.
(ix) Pictorial: probably the prettiest of all calligraphy where the words appear in the shape of a bird, animal, tree, boat or other object.
Ivory Carving
Ivory carving began in the Fatimid era, and it reached its zenith in Andalusia (Spain) around the latter half of the tenth century A.D.
The most beautiful forms were in the form of circular caskets, with very profuse decorations of birds and animals.
Embroidery and fine textiles
One of the most beautiful handicrafts of the Arab world is embroidery, intricate patterns and decorations, and sometimes calligraphy can be sown onto pieces of cloth using colored threads of silver and gold.
This art form also includes "Sirma" where a gold or silver thread is woven onto black cloth.
Perhaps the most famous of these is the "Kiswa" (covering) of the K'abah. It is decorated with verses from the Qur'an.
The art of embroidery is a special art from of Syria, Egypt, Iraq and Andalusia and later Ottoman Turkey.
Carpets:
Carpets are important because they are used for prayer.
Nomads often made woven carpets on small, portable looms stretched over the ground. These carpets are called "Kelims".
The best carpets are made in Khorassan (Iran), followed by Turkey and Egypt, Expensive carpets are made of wool fiber and have many knots per square inch.
Music
At the beginning of Islam, people viewed music with some reservation, since it was in pre-Islamic associated with singing and drinking, and the pleasures and Luxuries of life.
During the time of the caliphs Osman and Ali, Medina became the center of musical activity. The Persians who working in masonry brought this one.
Some of the Ummayad caliphs had a real passion for music. With the Abbasid dynasty, Islamic music attained its highest point.
The music of Andalusia (Spain) is cross-fertilization of Visigoth, Berber and the sophisticated Ummayad melodies. This led to the musical forms such as zajal and mawashah which survive till today in the Maghrib.
The Andalusia singing resembles, in many ways, the Arabic incantation.
The Sufis use singing whirling dancing and music in their mystical approach to the love of God.
The Islamic musical instruments include;
Wind instruments (Mizmar and Nay (flute).
Membranophones or tabla (drum)
Lodophones such as metal castanets or tiny cymbals.
Chordophones (stringed instruments) the Old, and the Qanun. These are plucked.
Friday, April 24, 2009
Wednesday, April 22, 2009
Islam
The Revelations of the prophet and the Holy Qura'n
Revelations were still bestowed on Mohamad (PBUH), when he has forty years of age. He was given to meditation and night in Ramadan the angel Gabriel appeared before him on amount Hira.Gabriel addressed him and said "Read"- Mohammad's (PBUH) hesitated. Three times the angel said "Read" I can not read" was Mohammad's (PBUH) reply (He was illiterate).
"Read in the name of thy Lord who created man out of a clot congealed blood Read and thy Lord is most bountiful. He who taught man the use of the pen and taught man that which he knew not' (Surah al-Alak (No. 96 verses 1-5).Mohammad returned shivering to his wife, Khadija, and told her what had happened. She took his story to her cousin Waraqah Ibn-Nofal. He told her that it was the angel Gabriel whom Allah had sent to Moses had also come to Mohammad.
Through these revelations, Allah ordered the prophet (PBUH) to go forth boldly and proclaim the new religion. There is no God but Allah and Mohammad is his prophet.
The prophet started the call to Islam in secret. He began to win son converts.
Prophet Mohammad's Character of Privileges to the Monks of St. Catherine Monastery
In 628 C. E. Prophet Mohammad granted a character of Privileges to the monks of St. Catherine Monastery in Mt. Sinai.This is a message from Mohammad Ibn Abdullah, as a covenant to those who adopt Christianity, near and far, we are with them. Verily I, the servants, the helpers, and my own followers defend them because Christians are my citizens; and by Allah I hold out against anything that displeases them. No compulsion is to be on them. Neither are their judges to be removed from their jobs nor their monks from their monasteries. No one is to destroy a house of their religion, to damage it, or to carry anything from it to Moslem's houses. Should anyone take any of these, he would spoil God's covenant and disobey. His prophet. Verily, they are my allies and have my secure charter against all that the hate.
No one is to force them to travel or to oblige tem to fight. The Moslems are to fight for them.
If a female Christian is married to a Moslem, it is not to take place without her approval. She is not to be prevented from visiting her church to pray. Their churches are to be respected. They are neither to be prevented from repairing them nor the sacredness of their covenants. No one of the nation (Moslems) is to disobey the covenant till the last Day (end of the world)".
This charter of privileges has been honored and faithfully applied by Moslems through the centuries in all lands they ruled.Name of the prophets
The Qur'an believes in all the prophets found in the Talmud (Old Testament) and the Bible (New Testament).Biblical names Qur'an namesAron Harun
Abraham Ibrahim
Adam Adam
David Da'ud
Elijah Elias
Elisha Alvasa' Enoch Idris
Ezekiel Zhu-l-kiflEzra Uzair
Isaac Ishaq
Ishmael Ismail
Jacob Ya'qub
Jesus Isa
Jethro shu'aybJob Ayyub
John the Baptist YahyaJonah Yunis
Joseph Yusef
Lot LotMary Maryam
Mohamad
Moses MusaNoah NuhSolomon Suleiman
Zacharias Zakaria
Six Misconceptions About Islam
1- Misconception # 1 Moslems Worship A Different God
Allah is simply the Arabic word for God. Allah is the same God Worshiped by Moslems. Christians and Jews. The Jews call him Yahwah. In Islam, God is exalted, he was not born, nor did he give birth to anyone. He does not have associates, nor does he have human attributes.
2- Misconception # 2 Moslems Worship Mohammad
Moslems believe in all the prophets- Adam, Noah, Moses, Jesus, Abraham, Isaac, Ismail, etc.. they also believe in all the "people of the Book". This includes Christians and Jews. Mohammad is the last messenger, but Moslems believe he is not divine and they do not worship him. They worship God. It is very wrong to call Moslems "Mohammedans".
3- Misconception & 3 Moslems do not believe in Jesus or any of the other prophets: Moslems respect and revere Jesus. They consider him one of the greatest of God's messengers. The Quran confirms his virgin birth and Mary is considered the purest woman in all creation.
4- Misconception # 4 Moslems are Violent Terrorists
Many groups have used Islam and a cover for their political activity, since our religion has "mass appeal". Islam dominates everyday life in some countries like no other religion. Islam literary means submission to God, and is derived from Salam meaning Peace. Nowhere Islam condone the killing of innocent people. When a Jewish gunman attacks people praying in the mosque, or a Catholic IRA guerilla sets off a bomb, or a Serbian Orthodox militiaman rapes and kills innocent people – these acts are not used to stereotype an entrie religion!
5- Misconception # 5 All Moslems are Arabs
Twenty percent (20%) of the World population is Moslems (1.2 billion people). Only 18% of these 1.2 billion are Arabs. The largest Moslem community lives in Indonesia. The breakdown of the Moslem populations is as follows:
25% in India
20% in Sub Saharan Africa
18% in the Arab World
17% in Southeast Asia
10% in the former Soviet Union & China
10% in Turkey, Iran & Afghanistan
There are 6 million Moslems in the USA, where it is the fastest growing religion
6- Misconception # 5 Moslems are a Barbaric backward people
Civilization first spread from Egypt to Greece. It was then carried by the Arabs (Moslems and Jews) to Europe through the conquest of Andalusia (Spain). Throughout the European dark ages. Arabia was a center for learning and culture. The Moslems excelled in Philosophy, chemistry, Mathematics, Optics, Medicine and Astronomy.
The early Islamic Period
A concise history
- Islamic history begins with the prophet Mohammad (pbuh) and his struggle in Mecca, his emigration to Medina (Yathrib), and his final return to Mecca and the acceptance of Islam as the new religion.
- This was followed by the death of Mohammad, and the choice of Abu Bakr as the first caliph (632- 634 A. D.). Here Islam began to spread to some of the neighnboring countries. Omar Ibn Al-Khattab then became caliph and it was during his reign (634- 644 A. D.) that most of the Islamic expansion took place- Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, Syria and Egypt. His reign was followed by the caliphate of Osman who was killed by a rebel group. This was followed by the caliphate of Ali when the schism between the Islamic factors became even more pronounced. During he reign of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the position of Caliph was chosen by the elders. It was not handed down by birth-more like a Republic than a Monarchy.
- Next came the Ummayad dynasty whose founder, Mu'awiyah was a brilliant politician and statesman. He moved the capital from Mecca to Damascus and instituted a dynastic rule which lasted a hundred years. As with most monarchies, "the followers and caliphs", were of differing abilities in their governorship. During the Ummavad dynasty the expansion of Islam continued into North Africa and finally Spain.
- The Abbasid dynasty followed, after an insurrection and the battle of the River Zab. Abdelrahman I, from the Ummayad family, Swam away and fled to Spain (Andalusia). There he founded his own dynasty.
- The Abbasid were descendants of the uncle of the prophet. They moved the capital to Baghdad. During this period Islam reached its zenith in wealth and power and it truly became multinational, especially with the incorporation of Persia and Asia. This dynasty lasted 500 years (750- 1258 A. D.).
- The end came when Hulaga, a descendant of Jangis Khan, along with the Mongolian army, successfully attacked and sacked Baghdad.
- the end of the Islamic occupation of Spain came with the inquisition in 1492. Jews and Moslems were expelled from Spain.
The rightly guided caliphs
- The world caliph, or Calipha, means "he who follows" or successors.
- The rightly guided caliphs are:
1- Abu-Bakr El-Sedeek.
2- Omar Ibn Al-Khattab.
3- Osman (Othman) Ibn Afan.
4- Ali Ibn Abu-Talin.
Abu-Bakr El Sedeek (1st, Caliph)
632- 634 A. D.
- He was the prophet's most trusted friend and confidant. He was a merchant from the tribe or Quraish.
- He was the one who accompanied the prophet in his emigration (Hijra) from Mecca to Medina.
- The prophet had not named a successor when he died. Abu Bakr was elected by the elders of the Moslem community to succeed him.
- He gave a sermon at the death of the prophet and proclaimed that "those who worshipped Mohammad (PBUH), Mohammad is dead. Those who worship God, God lives forever".
- He is generally believed to have been mild mannered, diplomatic, modest and gentle.
- He could, in times of crises, display both firmness and dynamic energy.
- Many believe, he was the model example of a Moslem, and he determined to follow in every way the example of the prophet.
- Although Abu Bakr's reign was very brief (2 years), they were critical years in the continuation of the new religion. Some of the tribes, after the death of the prophet renounced Islam. There were also false prophets who claimed to have received divine messages. Through his able general, KHaled Ibn Al-Waleed, a series of conquests were initiated in Persia and the Levant to quell these rebellions.
- On the 12th August 643 A. D., Abu Bakr died. He was 63 years old. He died penniless and was buried next to the prophet in Medina.
Caliph Abu Bakr Speech
After giving praise and thanks to Allah (The one true God), Abu Bakr addressed the Moslems gathered at the prophet's mosque: "I have been given the authority over you, and I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me; and if I do wrong, set me right Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery".
The weak amongst you shall be strong with me until I have secured his rights, if God will; and the strong amongst you shall be weak with me until I have wrested from him the rights of others, if God will. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger (Mohammad, PBUH). But if I disobey God and his messenger, you owe me no obedience. Arise for your prayer, God have mercy upon you".Omar Ibn AL- Khattab634- 644 A. D. (2nd, Caliph)· He was the second caliph of Islam. His leadership lasted for 10 years.
· After the Prophet Mohammad (pbuh), he was the most influential figure in Islamic history. He was responsible for the spread of Islam in its early years.
· His influence, in many ways, resembles the influence of Paul in the spread of Christianity.
· Physically, he was a giant of a man, with great stamina and strength.
· During his time that the 2 great empires, Persia and Byzantium were defeated.
· He was a simple man, with simple tastes. His clothes were often ragged and patched. Many times he would sleep under a tree and not in a tent. He represented the ascetic life that is so valued in Islam.
· He was famous for his strong will and direct impetuous and unambiguous character. He was preoccupied with being fair and that justice would prevail.
· His reigns was marked by his powerful, simple ascetic and puritan character. His era was considered to be the golden age of Islam.
· He was an excellent administrator, who insisted that no one be forcibly converted to Islam. His armies lived in garrison cities like Fustat.
· After the death of the prophet, Omar thrust the leadership Bakr thus avoiding a struggle for power.
· He was the first to assume the title of Amir Mu'minin "commander of the Faithful". He created a diwan which gave a stipend to all, based on merit and station, down to slaves and children.
· At the age of 58, he was assassinated by Abu Lu'lu'ah Firoz, A Persian man.
· It was Omar who insisted that the Islamic Calendar start with the year of the prophet's emigration (Hijra).
· On his death bed, Omar appointed a council, the Shura (advisors) to elect a new caliph, once again avoiding a power struggle.
Similarities between Paul, The Apostle & Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, The Second Caliph
· Both were vigorously opposed to the new religion (Christianity and Islam).
· Both were transformed to their new religion through a remarkable experience.
· Both were very instrumental in the spread of their religion. They were both the "secondary movers".
· Both met violent deaths- Paul at the hands of the Romans, and Omar at the hand of a Persian.
Osman Ibn Affan644- 656 A. D. (3rd Caliph)· Osman was a wealthy merchant who belonged to the rich and powerful ummayad clan in Mecca.
· The prophet (PBUH) began to preach in Mecca in 615 A. D. five years Osman accepted Islam (620 A. D.), and he became the first convert of high social and economic standing.
At the death of Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, the shura council of six statesmen, Osman as the next caliph. His election was a compromise when opposition to the more powerful candidates cancelled each other out.
· Osman followed the same general policies as his predecessor, but he had a less forceful personality.
· Osman was responsible for the gathering and compilation of the Qur'an, an before that the Qur'an existed in the form of various collections of sayings.
· In an effort to strengthen the central government Osman gave many of the provincial governorships to members of his family. This nepotism caused political unrest and revolt.
· Dissatisfaction with the tyranny of Ummayads led to a revolt against Osman. He was besieged and beheaded while reading the Qur'an.
· After his death the Moslem community suffered from religious and political strife.
Ali Ibn Abu Taleb· Ali was the fourth caliph, appointed after the assassination of Osman. He was a member of the Hashemites and cousin to the prophet (PBUH).
· He was the first child to convert to Islam at the age of thirteen. The prophet (PBUH) had asked "which of you sons of Abdel Mutalib will help me in our new religion?" The only on who responded was Ali who was then thirteen years old.
· The prophet (PBUH) then said "This is my brother, my executor and my successor among you". He had a special relationship with the prophet (PBUH) who referred to him ay least twice as "my brother" and three times as "my heir" (wasi).
· Ali became a renowned warrior during Islam's struggle for survival, often leading the army. He had an independent personality and was not given to the arts of social diplomacy or compromise.
· He married the prophet's daughter, Fatma, and it is from their two sons Hassan and Hussein that the "Sharifs", or progeny of the prophet (PBUH) descend. A third son, Mohsen, died in infancy. They also had a daughter, Zeinab.
· After Fatma died, Ali had another son by another wife. This son, Mohammad Ibn Hanifa, became the leader of a revolt against the Ummayads.
· Ali was elected Caliph at a time of political. He had to put down a rebellion led by the Companions Talhah and Al-Zubier in which A'isha, the prophet's (PBUH) wife took part. Ali defeated the rebels at the Battle of the Camel.
· Mu'awiyah, govern of Damascus, also made a bid for the caliphate. This led to the Battle of Siffin.
· Ali's troops had the upper hand in the battle, when Mu'awiyah's troops put the Qur'an on their bayonets.
· A truce was made and negotiations began to avoid further bloodshed. Mu'awiyah manipulated the negotiation with cunning and declared himself Caliph.
· Ali refused to surrender his authority and established himself at Kufah (Iraq). He was assassinated by a member of reble group (Kharijite).
· His son, Hassan, succeeded his father as caliph, but was forced step down, after 6 months by Ma'awiyah.
· His second son, Hussein, was killed at the battle of Karbila 'by the forces of Mu'awiyah's son, Yazid.
· Ali's death led to schism in Islam and the formation of Shi'ism. The Shia belief is that Ali had exclusive right to the caliphate which was usurped from him. Ali's tomb is in Bajaf, Iraq, Ali laid down the rules of formal Arabic grammar. His sermons were collected in a book "Nahj Al-Ablagh" (The way of eloquence).
Major Islam Battles
1- Yarmouk (August 636):
· The battle of Yarmouk, fought in what is now Jordan, next to the Sea of Galilee, was probably the most important and decisive battle fought between the Byzantine forces and the emerging Islamic army.
· The army raised by Heraclius (Byzantine Emperor) and commanded by Theodorus in the early months of 636 was the largest that the Byzantine army had 240.000 soldiers and cavalry, while the Islamic army contained only 45.000 soldiers and cavalry (a numerical superiority of 5: 1).
· Both Moslem generals immediately retreated to avoid a confrontation with the Byznatine army-Khaled Ibn Al-Walled evacuated Homs, while Abu Ubeida left Damascuc. All the Moslem forces concentrated to the South of the river Yarmouk.
· The two armies were poised and skirmishes occurred over a period of a few days. Then on 20th August, a strong sandstorm developed. The wind below away the tents and made visibility impossible.
· The Islamic army, led by Khaled Ibn Al-Waleed, outflanked the immobile Byzantine army, cut off its supply routes, and then attacked Theodorus was killed in the attack, and the army was slaughtered.
· Just before the battle, Khaled was relieved of his command by the new Caliph, Omar Ibn Al-Khttab. Khaled hid this from his soldiers until the battle was over.
· This battle is important since it dealt a crushing blow to the Byzantine empire and opened the way for the Moslem army to move into Syria, Lebanon and Palestine.
· It was also the first time the Islamic army had demonstrated advanced tactics in combat.
The Moslem Army· At first, the army was very primitive and considered of light infantry and light cavalry. In the early years, their main weapons were the lance and the bow and arrow. Swords were imported from India Persia. The cavalry rode horses and camels.
· As the army became more sophisticated, they used mangonels (manjaniq or catapults) and ballistas for hurling missiles, rams for battering down walls, and towers manned by soldiers for pushing up against walls.
· The commander used flags of different colors for communications, ordering attacks, retreats etc..
· The Moslem army preferred to flight in open plains, not in mountainous areas or valleys.
· Once the two armies faced each other, a series of combatants from each side challenged each other, one from each side. Although this had nothing to do with the outcome of the upcoming battle if had a psychological effect on the people. It was difficult to be optimistic if your best warriors were slain in front of your own eyes.
· Behind the army, the wives of the combatants would stand cheering them on.
How the Moslem army defeated their enemies
· It is indeed remarkable that the small and simple Moslem army could defeat the much stronger armies of two very powerful empires- the Roman (Byzantine) and the Persian Empires, and spread Islam from Arabia to Spain and China. How did they do it?
· Perhaps the strongest force was the force of faith. The Moslems believed in their cause and fought valiantly, sometimes at incredible odds.
· Initially the army was very simple and mobile. They used this to their advantage. They did not wear helmets or metal armor. They were quick o attack, quick to retreat.
They were simple and hardy people who lived off the desert and did not need large supply lines. The imperial army required along supply line that could easily be attacked.
· The Moslem army was made up of desert people who understood the terrain well. They were not bothered by the harsh, barren climate or sandstorms.
· They had able generals who learned the tactics of war quickly, such as:
- Khaled Ibn Al-Waleed.
- Amr Ibn Al-As.
- Tarek Ibn Zayad.
- Salla Al-Din (Saladin), (much later).
· The Persian and the Byzantine empires had oppressed the people for too long. When the Moslem army arrived, with its religious tolerance, the people readily joined it.
· References:
1- The Great Arab Conquests – by John Bagot Glubb.
2- The world of Islam- by Bernard Lewis.
Khaled Ibn El-Walled"Sword of God"
582- 643 A. D.
· He was probably the most brilliant of all the Arab Generals. He commanded the armies very early at the beginning of the Islamic period.
· For many years he had fought on the side of the infidels (Al-Kafereen), and was responsible for the prophet's defeat at the battle of Uhud.
· When he became a Moslem and switched sides, the prophet called him the "Sword of God".
· His Victories against the Byzantine (eastern empire) the Persians were brilliant, and were the reason for the continuation of the Islamic conquests.
· he was a great strategist who effectively utilized the speed of the Arab armies and their light cavalry. The Roman and Persian soldiers, on the other hand, wore many layers of armor and were slow in their movements.
· He fought 10 major battles- and won all of them.
· At the battle of Yarmouk, he was relieved by the 2nd caliph Omar Ibn Al-Khattab of his command. He hid the news from his army, and after the victory, informed his soldiers. It would appear that this demotion was done by Omar because he feared Khaled's growing popularity.
· Khaled continued to flight in the Arab army, but more as a second commander.
Amr Ibn Al Aas
· He was of two outstanding military generals, who helped defeat the imperial armies at the beginning of Islam.
· He was a wealthy member of the Banu Sallim clan of the tribe of Quraish. Amr and Khaled Ibn Al-Waleed joined the ranks of Islam in 629 A. D.
· As the leader of one of the military forces sent to Palestine by the caliph Abu Bakr, he was responsible for the Moslem conquest of Palestine. He fought at the battle of Ajnadayn.
· At the battle Siffin 657 A. D., he sided with Mu'awiyah, governor of Syria, against Ali, the fourth Caliph of Islam. The forces of Mu'awiyah put the Quran on their bayonets, which stopped the fighting, and in the ensuing arbitration, Amr faithfully represented Mu'awiyah who became the new caliph.
· He has a commonly quoted saying "War is deception".
· He achieved lasting fame for his conquest of Egypt… a campaign that, according to some sources he undertook on his own initiative.
· After defeating a large Byzantine force at Heliopolis 640 A. D., Babylon (old Cairo) in 641 A. D., he entered the capital Alexandria in 642 A. D.
· A successful general, Amr was also a capable government administrator and an astute politician in Egypt, he organized the system of Taxation and the administration of justice.
· He founded the garrison city of Al-Fustat adjacent to the city of Babylon. The city grew to become Cairo.
· He founded the first mosque outside of Arabia, the Amr Ibn Al-Ass mosque in old Cairo.
· He died in 633, at the age of 63, in Fustat (Cairo).
661- 750 A. D.Ummayads · After the death of Ali Ibn Abu Talib, Mu'awiyeh became Caliph. He founded a dynasty which ruled for 90 years.
· The capital was moved from Mecca to Damascus, since Mu'awiyeh was the governor of Syria.
· There was much civil strife and many wars were fought both with Byzantine and Persian armies, but also with dissenting factions in Islam.
· Among the Ummayad rules there were extremes – one military leader Haggag Ibn Yousef was very cruel in putting down revolts in Iraq. On the other hand there was also the saintly and abstemious "Umar Ibn AbdelAziz".
· There were great military conquests which extended Islam into North Africa Spain and even parts of France.
· The Ummayad rule came to an end when revolution broke out in Khorasan incited by an Abbasid agitator named Abu Moslem.
· A new dynasty was founded by Abu Al-Safah, a dynasty of the uncle of the prophet. The battle of The River Zab left the Ummayads defeated.
* The Ummayad rulers were as follows:
0 Mu'awiyeh Ibn Abu-Sufyan 66- 683.
0 Yazid Ibn Mu'awiyeh 683
0 Marwan Ibn Al-Hakam 684- 685
0 AbdelMalik Ibn Marwan 685- 705
0 Al-Walid Ibn Abdel Malik 705- 715
0 Sulayman 715- 717
0 Umar Ibn Abdel Aziz 717- 720
0 Hisham Ibn Abdel Aziz 720- 743
0 Al-Walid II 743- 744
0 Yazid II 744
0 Ibrahim 744
0 Marwan 744- 750
The Abbasid Dynasty750- 1258 A. D.
· This is the second of the two great dynasties of the Moslem empire.
· With the excesses of the Ummayad dynasty, there was political unrest, leading to their overthrow. The Abbasids then took over. The name is derived from the uncle of the prophet Mohammad Al-Abbas of the Hashemite clan of the Queaish tribe in Mecca.
· Members of the Abu Al-Abbas clan worked to gain control of the empire. They received the support of the Shi'ite Arabs and Persians in Khorassan.
· Open revolt in 747 A.D., under the leadership of Abu Moslem El-Kohrassani led to the defeat of Marwan II, the last of the Ummayad caliphs, at the battle of the great Zab river, and to the proclamation of the first Abbasid caliph, Abu Al-Abbas Al-Saffah.
· Marwan's son Abdelrahman, I, was thrown in the river and swam away. He later traveled to Spain (Andalusia) where he founded an independent caliphate.
· The Abbasid caliphate moved eastward and a new capital was founded- Baghdad.
· Whereas the Ummayads had turned westwards to North Africa and Spain, the Abbasids turned eastwards to Afghanistan, India and China.
· Between 750 and 833 A. D. The Abbasids raised the prestige and power of the Islamic empire promoting commerce, industry, arts and sciences.
· Much of the funding came from the Abbasid provinces. This funding reached a peak at the time of the fifth caliph, Harun Al-Rashid (809 A.D.). he appears to have been described n the Arabian tales "one Thousand and One Nights".
· The peak of intellectual and cultural achievements came during the reign of caliph Al-Ma'mun (783- 833 A.D.), son of Harun Al-Rashid. He founded Bait Al-Hikma (House of Wisdom). This academy contained a library and an observatory. He encouraged the translation of Greek worked into Arabic.
· As the empire grew, it began to be fragmented. Thus North Africa, Egypt and Spain began to have their own caliphate and the Abbasids weakened. They also began to depend more heavily on the mercenaries- Berber, Slav and especially the Turks.
· The end of the Abbasid empire came when the Mongols, under the leadership of Hulaga, a descendant of Jengis Khan, sacked Baghdad.
The fatimids909- 1171 A.D.
· The Fatimids were the Ismaili dynasty which founded Cairo as its capital in 969 A.D. and which ruled an empire extending from Palestine to Tunisia.
· Their name "Fatimids" represents their claim to be descended from the prophet through his daughter Fatimah, and her husband Ali, the prophet's cousin.
· The Fatimids were Ismailis, who were in turn an offshoot of the Shi'ites.
· Ada'i (ptopagandist) of the Ismaili organization Abu Abdullah Hussayn, also called Al-Shii (the Shite) established the dynasty.
· He persuaded the ketama Berbers living in Tunisia to accept his chief, Ubayd Allah as their religious and political leader.
· Ubayd Allah then built himself a capital called Al-Mahdiyyah in Ifriqiya (Tunis) in 969 A.D.
· The general Jawhar Conquered Egypt in the name of the Fatimid ruler Al-Mu'zz li-din-Allah and founded Cairo (Al-Qahira, the Victorious). From Cairo, the empire grew to include Palestine and Syria.
· The time of the Fatimid rulers was a time of the flourishing of the arts.
· The Fatimids founded the renowned Al-Azhar University, today the oldest and most venerable in the Islamic world.
· One Fatimid ruler, Al-Hakim, was erratic if not insane. He had the church of the Holy sepulcher in Jerusalem destroyed. This was one of the events which led to the crusades.
· The Fatimid rule ended in the year 1171 A.D., when they were overthrown by Saladin and his uncle Shirkuh. This then started the Ayyubid Dynasty.
Timeline of the Fatimids
Proclamation of the first Fatimid Caliph, Ybayd Allah in Tunisia
916 Fatimids invade and conquer Sicily
953- 975 Reigon of Al-Muizz li-din Allah as Caliph
General Jawhar conquers Egypt for Al-Muizz- Cairo is founded.
996-1021 Reign of Caliph "Al-Hakim".
The establishment of Dar Al-IIm (House of learning) in Cairo.
1009 Al-Hakim orders destruction of Holy sepulcher church.
1099 Jerusalem is captured by crusaders from Fatimid garrison.
1169 Shirkuh arrives in Cairo, dies and is succeeded by Saladin.
1171 Saladin abolishes Fatimid dynasty.
Islamic SpainMay 711 A.D.- January 1492 A.D.
· The Moslems spent 781 years in Spain to many observed, their accomplishment were substantial.
· The Islamic architecture reached its greatest beauty in Andalusia. There were many artistic achievements during this time.
· The Moslem Arabs brought their civilization along with the Greek Civilization (translated into Arabic) to Spain, and hence to Europe.
· At the beginning of their occupation of Iberia (Spain), the Moslem Arabs showed religious tolerance that has never been matched. Moslems, Christians and Jews all lived as one community.
· This period ended with religious strife, and finally with the Spanish Inquisition. Moslems and Jews were forced out of Spain.
· Andalusia (Islamic Spain) was the center of culture and learning. The Moslem cities- Cordoba Seville and Granada – boasted libraries with 500.000 books written in Arabia. Unfortunately, during the inquisition many of these books were burnt.
· Many of the Moslem scholars came from analusia – Ibn Rushd (Averroes). Ibn Battuta, Al Zahrawi. Abbas Ibn Naseh, Ibn Farnas. Al Ghazal, Maimonides (Ibn Al-Marimoon), Al-Zarqali, Masslama Al-Majrifi.
Tarek Ibn Zeyad
· Tarek Ibn Zeyad is the general who led the Moslem Conquest of Spain Tarek was of Berber origin.
· Musa Ibn Nusays, the Arab conqueror of Morocco, left Tarek to govern Tangier. Spain was undergoing civil war and was under Witiza, the Visigoth rule.
· The son of Witiza appealed to the Moslems for help. In May 711 A.D. Tarek landed on Gihralter (Jabal Tarek – in Arabic mountain of Tarek) with an army of 7.000 men, mostly Berbers. Syrians and Yemenis.
· After Tarek set foot in Spain, he ordered the burning of all the boast that they had used to cross the sea. Then he gave his famous speech: "The sea in behind you, the enemy is in front of you".
· In July 711 A.D., he defeated the force of the Visigoth usurper king Roderick and marched on Toledo, the capital of Spain, and occupied that city. He also conquered Cordoba, which became the Moslem capital of Andalusia- in Arabic garden).
· Musa himself arrived in Spain with about 180.000 more Arab troops in 712 A.D.
· Within the next few years the two generals occupied more than two-thirds of the Iberian Peninsula.
History of Islamic SpainMay 711 A.D. – January 1492 A.D.
The Moslems spent 781 years in Spain, that era can be divided into 6 periods.
(i) The conquest.
(ii) The independent Emirate.
(iii) The Ta'ifas.
(iv) The Almoravids.
(v) The Almohads.
(vi) Granada.
Some terms in Moslem Spanish History should be remembered.
Spanish Name Arabic Origin or Explanation
Toledo Tulaytu
Seville Ishbiliya
El Cid El Sayed (the master)
Almoravids Al-Murabiteen (the persistent ones)
Almohads Al-Mowaheedin (those who believe in one
God)
Mozarab most'areb (Arabic-speaking Christians) those who are like Arabs
Almeria Al-Meraya (the mirror)
Tortosa Turtushah (splatter of water)
Saragossa Saraqustah
Saladiyyun Baladi (of Arab origin)
Ta'ifas Tribal units
Al Andalus The Garden
Granada (City) Ghranada
Algeciras Al-Jazirah (the island)
Mulley Hacen Mawalaya Hassan
Boabdil Abu Abd Allah
Alhambra Al Hamra (the red)
Moriscos Arabs who became Christians
Moslem Spain
1- Conquest
· Musa Ibn Nusayr annexed all the western provinces (present day Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco)- the Maghrib- for the Ummayad dynasty in 705 A.D.
· The Visghths conquered most of Spain. After the death of King Witiza, this faction appealed to Musa of support against the usurper Roderick in 710 A.D.
· In May 711 A.D., Musa sent a Berber army headed by Tarek Ibn Zeyad across the straits of Gibraltar. In July 711 A.D., he was able to defeat Roderick.
· Tarek then marched on and captured Toledo (Tulaytulah). In the following year (712 A.D.), Musa that year, two-thirds of Spain lay in Moslem hands.
· Jews were no longer persecuted and all three religions lived in hamony. The taxes imposed by the Moslem rulers were far less than they had been under the Visigoths. The native population converted to Islam Musalimah and their children became Moslem-muwallads (mawalides).
· Moslem expansion came to a halt when the Moslem army led by Amir Abdelrahman Al-Ghafiqi was defeat by the Franks under Charles Marte in Tours, near Paris (732 A.D.).
II-Independent Emirate
· the dynasty of the Andalusian, Ummayads (756- 1031) marked the growth and perfection of the Moslem and Arabic civilization in Spain.
· This dynasty can be divided into 2major period- that of the independent Emirate (756- 929 A.D.) and that of the Caliphate (929- 1031 A.D.)
· During this period there were 3 important rulers- all named Abdelrahman (I, II and III).
· Abdelrahman I, was the organizer of the new Moslem state. He based his power on the Eastern aristocracy (Ummayads) and heaped upon it property and riches. He also had to contend with the intrigues of the Abbasids in the East and the amies of Charlemagne in the North. The Frankish advance halted when the Moslem army captured Barcelona (Barjelunah) in 801 A.D.
· Abdelrahman I was followed by Hisham (788- 796 A.D.) and Al-Hamam I (796- 822 A.D.).
· Abdelrahman II inaugurated an era of political, administrative and cultural regeneration. He also exchanged cordial relations and ambassadors with the Byzantine empire and the Frankish king Charles II.
· Abdelrahman II was able to restore order and recapture Saragossa, Merida and Seville.
III- Taifas (1009- 1031 A.D.)
· The central government became weak, and this was followed by the creation of numerous independent kingdoms that fought between themselves, called Ta'ifas.
· Seville (Ishbilyah) was under Arab rule, and it united southern Andalusia.
· This fragmentation facilitated the expansion of the Christian states. The latter imposed heavy taxes on the Moslem Ta'ifas which caused sharp friction between the Moslem authorities and their people.
· This period ended by the Castilians occupying Toledo (1085 A.D.).
IV- Al Moravids (Almurabiteen)
· The Moslem rulers asked for help and the Almoravid ruler, Yusuf Ibn Tashfin, came from the Maghrib with an army and defeated the Castillian army under Alfonso VI at Al-Zallaqah in 1086 A.D. His mission accomplished, he returned to the Maghrib.
· The in-fighting between the Ta'ifas continued and Ibn Tashufin returned and deposed the rulers of Granada, Malaga and Seville.
· El-Cid (El-Sayed)- Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar-resisted in Valencia-but it was finally captured (1110 A.D.) Valencia was recaptured by Alfonson VII and this marked the end of the Almoravides.
V- Almohads (Almowaheedin)
· * The Almohads crossed over from Africa. They sought to unite the Moslems and they compelled Christians and Jews to convert to Islam or emigrate.
· Al-Mansur defeated the king of Castille, Alfonso VII in the battle of Alarcos (Al-Iqab).
· Mohammad Ibn Al-Ahmar ruled in Granada from 1238- 1273 A.D., by accepting the sovereignty of Castillian kings.
· Granada became the only independent Moslem state in Christian Spain.
VI- Granada
· Mohammad Ibn Al-Ahamr founded the Nasrid dynasty which was to endure for two and a half centuries.
· Granada and the south of Spain with their secured boundaries, created a favourable climate for their people. During the region of Mohammad V (1354- 1391 A.D.). Moslem Spain reached its greatest splendor.
· This included some of the most learned men.
Al-Khatib (mathematics)
Ibn- Khatima (physician)
Ibn- Zamraq (poet)
· Finally, the armies of the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella marched on Granada which surrendered on January 2, 1492 A.D. During the Spanish inquisition Moslems and Jews were expelled from Spain.
· Some of the most noted Andalusian Scholars include:
Moses Maimondies (Philosopher physician)
Al-Drisi (geographer)
Al-Bakri (writer)
Al-Baytar (Botanist)
Al-Zarqali (Azarquiel)
· The Astrolab Astronomer who preceded Kepler in stating that the planet's orbit was ovoid, not circular.
Al-Majrifi (astronomy & mathematics)
Ibn-Rushd (Averroes) (philosophy)
· The Moslem Andalusians also gave the world great architectural designs palaces.
Revelations were still bestowed on Mohamad (PBUH), when he has forty years of age. He was given to meditation and night in Ramadan the angel Gabriel appeared before him on amount Hira.Gabriel addressed him and said "Read"- Mohammad's (PBUH) hesitated. Three times the angel said "Read" I can not read" was Mohammad's (PBUH) reply (He was illiterate).
"Read in the name of thy Lord who created man out of a clot congealed blood Read and thy Lord is most bountiful. He who taught man the use of the pen and taught man that which he knew not' (Surah al-Alak (No. 96 verses 1-5).Mohammad returned shivering to his wife, Khadija, and told her what had happened. She took his story to her cousin Waraqah Ibn-Nofal. He told her that it was the angel Gabriel whom Allah had sent to Moses had also come to Mohammad.
Through these revelations, Allah ordered the prophet (PBUH) to go forth boldly and proclaim the new religion. There is no God but Allah and Mohammad is his prophet.
The prophet started the call to Islam in secret. He began to win son converts.
Prophet Mohammad's Character of Privileges to the Monks of St. Catherine Monastery
In 628 C. E. Prophet Mohammad granted a character of Privileges to the monks of St. Catherine Monastery in Mt. Sinai.This is a message from Mohammad Ibn Abdullah, as a covenant to those who adopt Christianity, near and far, we are with them. Verily I, the servants, the helpers, and my own followers defend them because Christians are my citizens; and by Allah I hold out against anything that displeases them. No compulsion is to be on them. Neither are their judges to be removed from their jobs nor their monks from their monasteries. No one is to destroy a house of their religion, to damage it, or to carry anything from it to Moslem's houses. Should anyone take any of these, he would spoil God's covenant and disobey. His prophet. Verily, they are my allies and have my secure charter against all that the hate.
No one is to force them to travel or to oblige tem to fight. The Moslems are to fight for them.
If a female Christian is married to a Moslem, it is not to take place without her approval. She is not to be prevented from visiting her church to pray. Their churches are to be respected. They are neither to be prevented from repairing them nor the sacredness of their covenants. No one of the nation (Moslems) is to disobey the covenant till the last Day (end of the world)".
This charter of privileges has been honored and faithfully applied by Moslems through the centuries in all lands they ruled.Name of the prophets
The Qur'an believes in all the prophets found in the Talmud (Old Testament) and the Bible (New Testament).Biblical names Qur'an namesAron Harun
Abraham Ibrahim
Adam Adam
David Da'ud
Elijah Elias
Elisha Alvasa' Enoch Idris
Ezekiel Zhu-l-kiflEzra Uzair
Isaac Ishaq
Ishmael Ismail
Jacob Ya'qub
Jesus Isa
Jethro shu'aybJob Ayyub
John the Baptist YahyaJonah Yunis
Joseph Yusef
Lot LotMary Maryam
Mohamad
Moses MusaNoah NuhSolomon Suleiman
Zacharias Zakaria
Six Misconceptions About Islam
1- Misconception # 1 Moslems Worship A Different God
Allah is simply the Arabic word for God. Allah is the same God Worshiped by Moslems. Christians and Jews. The Jews call him Yahwah. In Islam, God is exalted, he was not born, nor did he give birth to anyone. He does not have associates, nor does he have human attributes.
2- Misconception # 2 Moslems Worship Mohammad
Moslems believe in all the prophets- Adam, Noah, Moses, Jesus, Abraham, Isaac, Ismail, etc.. they also believe in all the "people of the Book". This includes Christians and Jews. Mohammad is the last messenger, but Moslems believe he is not divine and they do not worship him. They worship God. It is very wrong to call Moslems "Mohammedans".
3- Misconception & 3 Moslems do not believe in Jesus or any of the other prophets: Moslems respect and revere Jesus. They consider him one of the greatest of God's messengers. The Quran confirms his virgin birth and Mary is considered the purest woman in all creation.
4- Misconception # 4 Moslems are Violent Terrorists
Many groups have used Islam and a cover for their political activity, since our religion has "mass appeal". Islam dominates everyday life in some countries like no other religion. Islam literary means submission to God, and is derived from Salam meaning Peace. Nowhere Islam condone the killing of innocent people. When a Jewish gunman attacks people praying in the mosque, or a Catholic IRA guerilla sets off a bomb, or a Serbian Orthodox militiaman rapes and kills innocent people – these acts are not used to stereotype an entrie religion!
5- Misconception # 5 All Moslems are Arabs
Twenty percent (20%) of the World population is Moslems (1.2 billion people). Only 18% of these 1.2 billion are Arabs. The largest Moslem community lives in Indonesia. The breakdown of the Moslem populations is as follows:
25% in India
20% in Sub Saharan Africa
18% in the Arab World
17% in Southeast Asia
10% in the former Soviet Union & China
10% in Turkey, Iran & Afghanistan
There are 6 million Moslems in the USA, where it is the fastest growing religion
6- Misconception # 5 Moslems are a Barbaric backward people
Civilization first spread from Egypt to Greece. It was then carried by the Arabs (Moslems and Jews) to Europe through the conquest of Andalusia (Spain). Throughout the European dark ages. Arabia was a center for learning and culture. The Moslems excelled in Philosophy, chemistry, Mathematics, Optics, Medicine and Astronomy.
The early Islamic Period
A concise history
- Islamic history begins with the prophet Mohammad (pbuh) and his struggle in Mecca, his emigration to Medina (Yathrib), and his final return to Mecca and the acceptance of Islam as the new religion.
- This was followed by the death of Mohammad, and the choice of Abu Bakr as the first caliph (632- 634 A. D.). Here Islam began to spread to some of the neighnboring countries. Omar Ibn Al-Khattab then became caliph and it was during his reign (634- 644 A. D.) that most of the Islamic expansion took place- Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, Syria and Egypt. His reign was followed by the caliphate of Osman who was killed by a rebel group. This was followed by the caliphate of Ali when the schism between the Islamic factors became even more pronounced. During he reign of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the position of Caliph was chosen by the elders. It was not handed down by birth-more like a Republic than a Monarchy.
- Next came the Ummayad dynasty whose founder, Mu'awiyah was a brilliant politician and statesman. He moved the capital from Mecca to Damascus and instituted a dynastic rule which lasted a hundred years. As with most monarchies, "the followers and caliphs", were of differing abilities in their governorship. During the Ummavad dynasty the expansion of Islam continued into North Africa and finally Spain.
- The Abbasid dynasty followed, after an insurrection and the battle of the River Zab. Abdelrahman I, from the Ummayad family, Swam away and fled to Spain (Andalusia). There he founded his own dynasty.
- The Abbasid were descendants of the uncle of the prophet. They moved the capital to Baghdad. During this period Islam reached its zenith in wealth and power and it truly became multinational, especially with the incorporation of Persia and Asia. This dynasty lasted 500 years (750- 1258 A. D.).
- The end came when Hulaga, a descendant of Jangis Khan, along with the Mongolian army, successfully attacked and sacked Baghdad.
- the end of the Islamic occupation of Spain came with the inquisition in 1492. Jews and Moslems were expelled from Spain.
The rightly guided caliphs
- The world caliph, or Calipha, means "he who follows" or successors.
- The rightly guided caliphs are:
1- Abu-Bakr El-Sedeek.
2- Omar Ibn Al-Khattab.
3- Osman (Othman) Ibn Afan.
4- Ali Ibn Abu-Talin.
Abu-Bakr El Sedeek (1st, Caliph)
632- 634 A. D.
- He was the prophet's most trusted friend and confidant. He was a merchant from the tribe or Quraish.
- He was the one who accompanied the prophet in his emigration (Hijra) from Mecca to Medina.
- The prophet had not named a successor when he died. Abu Bakr was elected by the elders of the Moslem community to succeed him.
- He gave a sermon at the death of the prophet and proclaimed that "those who worshipped Mohammad (PBUH), Mohammad is dead. Those who worship God, God lives forever".
- He is generally believed to have been mild mannered, diplomatic, modest and gentle.
- He could, in times of crises, display both firmness and dynamic energy.
- Many believe, he was the model example of a Moslem, and he determined to follow in every way the example of the prophet.
- Although Abu Bakr's reign was very brief (2 years), they were critical years in the continuation of the new religion. Some of the tribes, after the death of the prophet renounced Islam. There were also false prophets who claimed to have received divine messages. Through his able general, KHaled Ibn Al-Waleed, a series of conquests were initiated in Persia and the Levant to quell these rebellions.
- On the 12th August 643 A. D., Abu Bakr died. He was 63 years old. He died penniless and was buried next to the prophet in Medina.
Caliph Abu Bakr Speech
After giving praise and thanks to Allah (The one true God), Abu Bakr addressed the Moslems gathered at the prophet's mosque: "I have been given the authority over you, and I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me; and if I do wrong, set me right Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery".
The weak amongst you shall be strong with me until I have secured his rights, if God will; and the strong amongst you shall be weak with me until I have wrested from him the rights of others, if God will. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger (Mohammad, PBUH). But if I disobey God and his messenger, you owe me no obedience. Arise for your prayer, God have mercy upon you".Omar Ibn AL- Khattab634- 644 A. D. (2nd, Caliph)· He was the second caliph of Islam. His leadership lasted for 10 years.
· After the Prophet Mohammad (pbuh), he was the most influential figure in Islamic history. He was responsible for the spread of Islam in its early years.
· His influence, in many ways, resembles the influence of Paul in the spread of Christianity.
· Physically, he was a giant of a man, with great stamina and strength.
· During his time that the 2 great empires, Persia and Byzantium were defeated.
· He was a simple man, with simple tastes. His clothes were often ragged and patched. Many times he would sleep under a tree and not in a tent. He represented the ascetic life that is so valued in Islam.
· He was famous for his strong will and direct impetuous and unambiguous character. He was preoccupied with being fair and that justice would prevail.
· His reigns was marked by his powerful, simple ascetic and puritan character. His era was considered to be the golden age of Islam.
· He was an excellent administrator, who insisted that no one be forcibly converted to Islam. His armies lived in garrison cities like Fustat.
· After the death of the prophet, Omar thrust the leadership Bakr thus avoiding a struggle for power.
· He was the first to assume the title of Amir Mu'minin "commander of the Faithful". He created a diwan which gave a stipend to all, based on merit and station, down to slaves and children.
· At the age of 58, he was assassinated by Abu Lu'lu'ah Firoz, A Persian man.
· It was Omar who insisted that the Islamic Calendar start with the year of the prophet's emigration (Hijra).
· On his death bed, Omar appointed a council, the Shura (advisors) to elect a new caliph, once again avoiding a power struggle.
Similarities between Paul, The Apostle & Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, The Second Caliph
· Both were vigorously opposed to the new religion (Christianity and Islam).
· Both were transformed to their new religion through a remarkable experience.
· Both were very instrumental in the spread of their religion. They were both the "secondary movers".
· Both met violent deaths- Paul at the hands of the Romans, and Omar at the hand of a Persian.
Osman Ibn Affan644- 656 A. D. (3rd Caliph)· Osman was a wealthy merchant who belonged to the rich and powerful ummayad clan in Mecca.
· The prophet (PBUH) began to preach in Mecca in 615 A. D. five years Osman accepted Islam (620 A. D.), and he became the first convert of high social and economic standing.
At the death of Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, the shura council of six statesmen, Osman as the next caliph. His election was a compromise when opposition to the more powerful candidates cancelled each other out.
· Osman followed the same general policies as his predecessor, but he had a less forceful personality.
· Osman was responsible for the gathering and compilation of the Qur'an, an before that the Qur'an existed in the form of various collections of sayings.
· In an effort to strengthen the central government Osman gave many of the provincial governorships to members of his family. This nepotism caused political unrest and revolt.
· Dissatisfaction with the tyranny of Ummayads led to a revolt against Osman. He was besieged and beheaded while reading the Qur'an.
· After his death the Moslem community suffered from religious and political strife.
Ali Ibn Abu Taleb· Ali was the fourth caliph, appointed after the assassination of Osman. He was a member of the Hashemites and cousin to the prophet (PBUH).
· He was the first child to convert to Islam at the age of thirteen. The prophet (PBUH) had asked "which of you sons of Abdel Mutalib will help me in our new religion?" The only on who responded was Ali who was then thirteen years old.
· The prophet (PBUH) then said "This is my brother, my executor and my successor among you". He had a special relationship with the prophet (PBUH) who referred to him ay least twice as "my brother" and three times as "my heir" (wasi).
· Ali became a renowned warrior during Islam's struggle for survival, often leading the army. He had an independent personality and was not given to the arts of social diplomacy or compromise.
· He married the prophet's daughter, Fatma, and it is from their two sons Hassan and Hussein that the "Sharifs", or progeny of the prophet (PBUH) descend. A third son, Mohsen, died in infancy. They also had a daughter, Zeinab.
· After Fatma died, Ali had another son by another wife. This son, Mohammad Ibn Hanifa, became the leader of a revolt against the Ummayads.
· Ali was elected Caliph at a time of political. He had to put down a rebellion led by the Companions Talhah and Al-Zubier in which A'isha, the prophet's (PBUH) wife took part. Ali defeated the rebels at the Battle of the Camel.
· Mu'awiyah, govern of Damascus, also made a bid for the caliphate. This led to the Battle of Siffin.
· Ali's troops had the upper hand in the battle, when Mu'awiyah's troops put the Qur'an on their bayonets.
· A truce was made and negotiations began to avoid further bloodshed. Mu'awiyah manipulated the negotiation with cunning and declared himself Caliph.
· Ali refused to surrender his authority and established himself at Kufah (Iraq). He was assassinated by a member of reble group (Kharijite).
· His son, Hassan, succeeded his father as caliph, but was forced step down, after 6 months by Ma'awiyah.
· His second son, Hussein, was killed at the battle of Karbila 'by the forces of Mu'awiyah's son, Yazid.
· Ali's death led to schism in Islam and the formation of Shi'ism. The Shia belief is that Ali had exclusive right to the caliphate which was usurped from him. Ali's tomb is in Bajaf, Iraq, Ali laid down the rules of formal Arabic grammar. His sermons were collected in a book "Nahj Al-Ablagh" (The way of eloquence).
Major Islam Battles
1- Yarmouk (August 636):
· The battle of Yarmouk, fought in what is now Jordan, next to the Sea of Galilee, was probably the most important and decisive battle fought between the Byzantine forces and the emerging Islamic army.
· The army raised by Heraclius (Byzantine Emperor) and commanded by Theodorus in the early months of 636 was the largest that the Byzantine army had 240.000 soldiers and cavalry, while the Islamic army contained only 45.000 soldiers and cavalry (a numerical superiority of 5: 1).
· Both Moslem generals immediately retreated to avoid a confrontation with the Byznatine army-Khaled Ibn Al-Walled evacuated Homs, while Abu Ubeida left Damascuc. All the Moslem forces concentrated to the South of the river Yarmouk.
· The two armies were poised and skirmishes occurred over a period of a few days. Then on 20th August, a strong sandstorm developed. The wind below away the tents and made visibility impossible.
· The Islamic army, led by Khaled Ibn Al-Waleed, outflanked the immobile Byzantine army, cut off its supply routes, and then attacked Theodorus was killed in the attack, and the army was slaughtered.
· Just before the battle, Khaled was relieved of his command by the new Caliph, Omar Ibn Al-Khttab. Khaled hid this from his soldiers until the battle was over.
· This battle is important since it dealt a crushing blow to the Byzantine empire and opened the way for the Moslem army to move into Syria, Lebanon and Palestine.
· It was also the first time the Islamic army had demonstrated advanced tactics in combat.
The Moslem Army· At first, the army was very primitive and considered of light infantry and light cavalry. In the early years, their main weapons were the lance and the bow and arrow. Swords were imported from India Persia. The cavalry rode horses and camels.
· As the army became more sophisticated, they used mangonels (manjaniq or catapults) and ballistas for hurling missiles, rams for battering down walls, and towers manned by soldiers for pushing up against walls.
· The commander used flags of different colors for communications, ordering attacks, retreats etc..
· The Moslem army preferred to flight in open plains, not in mountainous areas or valleys.
· Once the two armies faced each other, a series of combatants from each side challenged each other, one from each side. Although this had nothing to do with the outcome of the upcoming battle if had a psychological effect on the people. It was difficult to be optimistic if your best warriors were slain in front of your own eyes.
· Behind the army, the wives of the combatants would stand cheering them on.
How the Moslem army defeated their enemies
· It is indeed remarkable that the small and simple Moslem army could defeat the much stronger armies of two very powerful empires- the Roman (Byzantine) and the Persian Empires, and spread Islam from Arabia to Spain and China. How did they do it?
· Perhaps the strongest force was the force of faith. The Moslems believed in their cause and fought valiantly, sometimes at incredible odds.
· Initially the army was very simple and mobile. They used this to their advantage. They did not wear helmets or metal armor. They were quick o attack, quick to retreat.
They were simple and hardy people who lived off the desert and did not need large supply lines. The imperial army required along supply line that could easily be attacked.
· The Moslem army was made up of desert people who understood the terrain well. They were not bothered by the harsh, barren climate or sandstorms.
· They had able generals who learned the tactics of war quickly, such as:
- Khaled Ibn Al-Waleed.
- Amr Ibn Al-As.
- Tarek Ibn Zayad.
- Salla Al-Din (Saladin), (much later).
· The Persian and the Byzantine empires had oppressed the people for too long. When the Moslem army arrived, with its religious tolerance, the people readily joined it.
· References:
1- The Great Arab Conquests – by John Bagot Glubb.
2- The world of Islam- by Bernard Lewis.
Khaled Ibn El-Walled"Sword of God"
582- 643 A. D.
· He was probably the most brilliant of all the Arab Generals. He commanded the armies very early at the beginning of the Islamic period.
· For many years he had fought on the side of the infidels (Al-Kafereen), and was responsible for the prophet's defeat at the battle of Uhud.
· When he became a Moslem and switched sides, the prophet called him the "Sword of God".
· His Victories against the Byzantine (eastern empire) the Persians were brilliant, and were the reason for the continuation of the Islamic conquests.
· he was a great strategist who effectively utilized the speed of the Arab armies and their light cavalry. The Roman and Persian soldiers, on the other hand, wore many layers of armor and were slow in their movements.
· He fought 10 major battles- and won all of them.
· At the battle of Yarmouk, he was relieved by the 2nd caliph Omar Ibn Al-Khattab of his command. He hid the news from his army, and after the victory, informed his soldiers. It would appear that this demotion was done by Omar because he feared Khaled's growing popularity.
· Khaled continued to flight in the Arab army, but more as a second commander.
Amr Ibn Al Aas
· He was of two outstanding military generals, who helped defeat the imperial armies at the beginning of Islam.
· He was a wealthy member of the Banu Sallim clan of the tribe of Quraish. Amr and Khaled Ibn Al-Waleed joined the ranks of Islam in 629 A. D.
· As the leader of one of the military forces sent to Palestine by the caliph Abu Bakr, he was responsible for the Moslem conquest of Palestine. He fought at the battle of Ajnadayn.
· At the battle Siffin 657 A. D., he sided with Mu'awiyah, governor of Syria, against Ali, the fourth Caliph of Islam. The forces of Mu'awiyah put the Quran on their bayonets, which stopped the fighting, and in the ensuing arbitration, Amr faithfully represented Mu'awiyah who became the new caliph.
· He has a commonly quoted saying "War is deception".
· He achieved lasting fame for his conquest of Egypt… a campaign that, according to some sources he undertook on his own initiative.
· After defeating a large Byzantine force at Heliopolis 640 A. D., Babylon (old Cairo) in 641 A. D., he entered the capital Alexandria in 642 A. D.
· A successful general, Amr was also a capable government administrator and an astute politician in Egypt, he organized the system of Taxation and the administration of justice.
· He founded the garrison city of Al-Fustat adjacent to the city of Babylon. The city grew to become Cairo.
· He founded the first mosque outside of Arabia, the Amr Ibn Al-Ass mosque in old Cairo.
· He died in 633, at the age of 63, in Fustat (Cairo).
661- 750 A. D.Ummayads · After the death of Ali Ibn Abu Talib, Mu'awiyeh became Caliph. He founded a dynasty which ruled for 90 years.
· The capital was moved from Mecca to Damascus, since Mu'awiyeh was the governor of Syria.
· There was much civil strife and many wars were fought both with Byzantine and Persian armies, but also with dissenting factions in Islam.
· Among the Ummayad rules there were extremes – one military leader Haggag Ibn Yousef was very cruel in putting down revolts in Iraq. On the other hand there was also the saintly and abstemious "Umar Ibn AbdelAziz".
· There were great military conquests which extended Islam into North Africa Spain and even parts of France.
· The Ummayad rule came to an end when revolution broke out in Khorasan incited by an Abbasid agitator named Abu Moslem.
· A new dynasty was founded by Abu Al-Safah, a dynasty of the uncle of the prophet. The battle of The River Zab left the Ummayads defeated.
* The Ummayad rulers were as follows:
0 Mu'awiyeh Ibn Abu-Sufyan 66- 683.
0 Yazid Ibn Mu'awiyeh 683
0 Marwan Ibn Al-Hakam 684- 685
0 AbdelMalik Ibn Marwan 685- 705
0 Al-Walid Ibn Abdel Malik 705- 715
0 Sulayman 715- 717
0 Umar Ibn Abdel Aziz 717- 720
0 Hisham Ibn Abdel Aziz 720- 743
0 Al-Walid II 743- 744
0 Yazid II 744
0 Ibrahim 744
0 Marwan 744- 750
The Abbasid Dynasty750- 1258 A. D.
· This is the second of the two great dynasties of the Moslem empire.
· With the excesses of the Ummayad dynasty, there was political unrest, leading to their overthrow. The Abbasids then took over. The name is derived from the uncle of the prophet Mohammad Al-Abbas of the Hashemite clan of the Queaish tribe in Mecca.
· Members of the Abu Al-Abbas clan worked to gain control of the empire. They received the support of the Shi'ite Arabs and Persians in Khorassan.
· Open revolt in 747 A.D., under the leadership of Abu Moslem El-Kohrassani led to the defeat of Marwan II, the last of the Ummayad caliphs, at the battle of the great Zab river, and to the proclamation of the first Abbasid caliph, Abu Al-Abbas Al-Saffah.
· Marwan's son Abdelrahman, I, was thrown in the river and swam away. He later traveled to Spain (Andalusia) where he founded an independent caliphate.
· The Abbasid caliphate moved eastward and a new capital was founded- Baghdad.
· Whereas the Ummayads had turned westwards to North Africa and Spain, the Abbasids turned eastwards to Afghanistan, India and China.
· Between 750 and 833 A. D. The Abbasids raised the prestige and power of the Islamic empire promoting commerce, industry, arts and sciences.
· Much of the funding came from the Abbasid provinces. This funding reached a peak at the time of the fifth caliph, Harun Al-Rashid (809 A.D.). he appears to have been described n the Arabian tales "one Thousand and One Nights".
· The peak of intellectual and cultural achievements came during the reign of caliph Al-Ma'mun (783- 833 A.D.), son of Harun Al-Rashid. He founded Bait Al-Hikma (House of Wisdom). This academy contained a library and an observatory. He encouraged the translation of Greek worked into Arabic.
· As the empire grew, it began to be fragmented. Thus North Africa, Egypt and Spain began to have their own caliphate and the Abbasids weakened. They also began to depend more heavily on the mercenaries- Berber, Slav and especially the Turks.
· The end of the Abbasid empire came when the Mongols, under the leadership of Hulaga, a descendant of Jengis Khan, sacked Baghdad.
The fatimids909- 1171 A.D.
· The Fatimids were the Ismaili dynasty which founded Cairo as its capital in 969 A.D. and which ruled an empire extending from Palestine to Tunisia.
· Their name "Fatimids" represents their claim to be descended from the prophet through his daughter Fatimah, and her husband Ali, the prophet's cousin.
· The Fatimids were Ismailis, who were in turn an offshoot of the Shi'ites.
· Ada'i (ptopagandist) of the Ismaili organization Abu Abdullah Hussayn, also called Al-Shii (the Shite) established the dynasty.
· He persuaded the ketama Berbers living in Tunisia to accept his chief, Ubayd Allah as their religious and political leader.
· Ubayd Allah then built himself a capital called Al-Mahdiyyah in Ifriqiya (Tunis) in 969 A.D.
· The general Jawhar Conquered Egypt in the name of the Fatimid ruler Al-Mu'zz li-din-Allah and founded Cairo (Al-Qahira, the Victorious). From Cairo, the empire grew to include Palestine and Syria.
· The time of the Fatimid rulers was a time of the flourishing of the arts.
· The Fatimids founded the renowned Al-Azhar University, today the oldest and most venerable in the Islamic world.
· One Fatimid ruler, Al-Hakim, was erratic if not insane. He had the church of the Holy sepulcher in Jerusalem destroyed. This was one of the events which led to the crusades.
· The Fatimid rule ended in the year 1171 A.D., when they were overthrown by Saladin and his uncle Shirkuh. This then started the Ayyubid Dynasty.
Timeline of the Fatimids
Proclamation of the first Fatimid Caliph, Ybayd Allah in Tunisia
916 Fatimids invade and conquer Sicily
953- 975 Reigon of Al-Muizz li-din Allah as Caliph
General Jawhar conquers Egypt for Al-Muizz- Cairo is founded.
996-1021 Reign of Caliph "Al-Hakim".
The establishment of Dar Al-IIm (House of learning) in Cairo.
1009 Al-Hakim orders destruction of Holy sepulcher church.
1099 Jerusalem is captured by crusaders from Fatimid garrison.
1169 Shirkuh arrives in Cairo, dies and is succeeded by Saladin.
1171 Saladin abolishes Fatimid dynasty.
Islamic SpainMay 711 A.D.- January 1492 A.D.
· The Moslems spent 781 years in Spain to many observed, their accomplishment were substantial.
· The Islamic architecture reached its greatest beauty in Andalusia. There were many artistic achievements during this time.
· The Moslem Arabs brought their civilization along with the Greek Civilization (translated into Arabic) to Spain, and hence to Europe.
· At the beginning of their occupation of Iberia (Spain), the Moslem Arabs showed religious tolerance that has never been matched. Moslems, Christians and Jews all lived as one community.
· This period ended with religious strife, and finally with the Spanish Inquisition. Moslems and Jews were forced out of Spain.
· Andalusia (Islamic Spain) was the center of culture and learning. The Moslem cities- Cordoba Seville and Granada – boasted libraries with 500.000 books written in Arabia. Unfortunately, during the inquisition many of these books were burnt.
· Many of the Moslem scholars came from analusia – Ibn Rushd (Averroes). Ibn Battuta, Al Zahrawi. Abbas Ibn Naseh, Ibn Farnas. Al Ghazal, Maimonides (Ibn Al-Marimoon), Al-Zarqali, Masslama Al-Majrifi.
Tarek Ibn Zeyad
· Tarek Ibn Zeyad is the general who led the Moslem Conquest of Spain Tarek was of Berber origin.
· Musa Ibn Nusays, the Arab conqueror of Morocco, left Tarek to govern Tangier. Spain was undergoing civil war and was under Witiza, the Visigoth rule.
· The son of Witiza appealed to the Moslems for help. In May 711 A.D. Tarek landed on Gihralter (Jabal Tarek – in Arabic mountain of Tarek) with an army of 7.000 men, mostly Berbers. Syrians and Yemenis.
· After Tarek set foot in Spain, he ordered the burning of all the boast that they had used to cross the sea. Then he gave his famous speech: "The sea in behind you, the enemy is in front of you".
· In July 711 A.D., he defeated the force of the Visigoth usurper king Roderick and marched on Toledo, the capital of Spain, and occupied that city. He also conquered Cordoba, which became the Moslem capital of Andalusia- in Arabic garden).
· Musa himself arrived in Spain with about 180.000 more Arab troops in 712 A.D.
· Within the next few years the two generals occupied more than two-thirds of the Iberian Peninsula.
History of Islamic SpainMay 711 A.D. – January 1492 A.D.
The Moslems spent 781 years in Spain, that era can be divided into 6 periods.
(i) The conquest.
(ii) The independent Emirate.
(iii) The Ta'ifas.
(iv) The Almoravids.
(v) The Almohads.
(vi) Granada.
Some terms in Moslem Spanish History should be remembered.
Spanish Name Arabic Origin or Explanation
Toledo Tulaytu
Seville Ishbiliya
El Cid El Sayed (the master)
Almoravids Al-Murabiteen (the persistent ones)
Almohads Al-Mowaheedin (those who believe in one
God)
Mozarab most'areb (Arabic-speaking Christians) those who are like Arabs
Almeria Al-Meraya (the mirror)
Tortosa Turtushah (splatter of water)
Saragossa Saraqustah
Saladiyyun Baladi (of Arab origin)
Ta'ifas Tribal units
Al Andalus The Garden
Granada (City) Ghranada
Algeciras Al-Jazirah (the island)
Mulley Hacen Mawalaya Hassan
Boabdil Abu Abd Allah
Alhambra Al Hamra (the red)
Moriscos Arabs who became Christians
Moslem Spain
1- Conquest
· Musa Ibn Nusayr annexed all the western provinces (present day Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco)- the Maghrib- for the Ummayad dynasty in 705 A.D.
· The Visghths conquered most of Spain. After the death of King Witiza, this faction appealed to Musa of support against the usurper Roderick in 710 A.D.
· In May 711 A.D., Musa sent a Berber army headed by Tarek Ibn Zeyad across the straits of Gibraltar. In July 711 A.D., he was able to defeat Roderick.
· Tarek then marched on and captured Toledo (Tulaytulah). In the following year (712 A.D.), Musa that year, two-thirds of Spain lay in Moslem hands.
· Jews were no longer persecuted and all three religions lived in hamony. The taxes imposed by the Moslem rulers were far less than they had been under the Visigoths. The native population converted to Islam Musalimah and their children became Moslem-muwallads (mawalides).
· Moslem expansion came to a halt when the Moslem army led by Amir Abdelrahman Al-Ghafiqi was defeat by the Franks under Charles Marte in Tours, near Paris (732 A.D.).
II-Independent Emirate
· the dynasty of the Andalusian, Ummayads (756- 1031) marked the growth and perfection of the Moslem and Arabic civilization in Spain.
· This dynasty can be divided into 2major period- that of the independent Emirate (756- 929 A.D.) and that of the Caliphate (929- 1031 A.D.)
· During this period there were 3 important rulers- all named Abdelrahman (I, II and III).
· Abdelrahman I, was the organizer of the new Moslem state. He based his power on the Eastern aristocracy (Ummayads) and heaped upon it property and riches. He also had to contend with the intrigues of the Abbasids in the East and the amies of Charlemagne in the North. The Frankish advance halted when the Moslem army captured Barcelona (Barjelunah) in 801 A.D.
· Abdelrahman I was followed by Hisham (788- 796 A.D.) and Al-Hamam I (796- 822 A.D.).
· Abdelrahman II inaugurated an era of political, administrative and cultural regeneration. He also exchanged cordial relations and ambassadors with the Byzantine empire and the Frankish king Charles II.
· Abdelrahman II was able to restore order and recapture Saragossa, Merida and Seville.
III- Taifas (1009- 1031 A.D.)
· The central government became weak, and this was followed by the creation of numerous independent kingdoms that fought between themselves, called Ta'ifas.
· Seville (Ishbilyah) was under Arab rule, and it united southern Andalusia.
· This fragmentation facilitated the expansion of the Christian states. The latter imposed heavy taxes on the Moslem Ta'ifas which caused sharp friction between the Moslem authorities and their people.
· This period ended by the Castilians occupying Toledo (1085 A.D.).
IV- Al Moravids (Almurabiteen)
· The Moslem rulers asked for help and the Almoravid ruler, Yusuf Ibn Tashfin, came from the Maghrib with an army and defeated the Castillian army under Alfonso VI at Al-Zallaqah in 1086 A.D. His mission accomplished, he returned to the Maghrib.
· The in-fighting between the Ta'ifas continued and Ibn Tashufin returned and deposed the rulers of Granada, Malaga and Seville.
· El-Cid (El-Sayed)- Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar-resisted in Valencia-but it was finally captured (1110 A.D.) Valencia was recaptured by Alfonson VII and this marked the end of the Almoravides.
V- Almohads (Almowaheedin)
· * The Almohads crossed over from Africa. They sought to unite the Moslems and they compelled Christians and Jews to convert to Islam or emigrate.
· Al-Mansur defeated the king of Castille, Alfonso VII in the battle of Alarcos (Al-Iqab).
· Mohammad Ibn Al-Ahmar ruled in Granada from 1238- 1273 A.D., by accepting the sovereignty of Castillian kings.
· Granada became the only independent Moslem state in Christian Spain.
VI- Granada
· Mohammad Ibn Al-Ahamr founded the Nasrid dynasty which was to endure for two and a half centuries.
· Granada and the south of Spain with their secured boundaries, created a favourable climate for their people. During the region of Mohammad V (1354- 1391 A.D.). Moslem Spain reached its greatest splendor.
· This included some of the most learned men.
Al-Khatib (mathematics)
Ibn- Khatima (physician)
Ibn- Zamraq (poet)
· Finally, the armies of the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella marched on Granada which surrendered on January 2, 1492 A.D. During the Spanish inquisition Moslems and Jews were expelled from Spain.
· Some of the most noted Andalusian Scholars include:
Moses Maimondies (Philosopher physician)
Al-Drisi (geographer)
Al-Bakri (writer)
Al-Baytar (Botanist)
Al-Zarqali (Azarquiel)
· The Astrolab Astronomer who preceded Kepler in stating that the planet's orbit was ovoid, not circular.
Al-Majrifi (astronomy & mathematics)
Ibn-Rushd (Averroes) (philosophy)
· The Moslem Andalusians also gave the world great architectural designs palaces.
Friday, April 17, 2009
A Brief outline of Islamic History
"I have been given the authority over you, and I am not best of you. If I do well, help me, and if I do wrong, set me right. Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery".
Introduction
Few people understand that Islam has a glorious history. It was the center of a great civilization at a time when Europe lived in the "Dark Ages". This civilization produced great military leaders who conquered most of the old world- from Spain in the west to China in the East. It also produced great Philosophers and Scientists.
It is the purpose to educate our young children about their history and heritage and also to educate those who not aware of this great history.
Egyptian History
- Pre-Dynastic history.
- The early Dynastic or Archaic period (3100- 2688 B. C.).
- The old kingdom (2686- 2181 BC).
- The first intermediate period (2181- 2050 BC).
- The middle kingdom (2050- 1786 BC).
- The second intermediate period (1786- 1567 B. C.).
- The late period (1085 – 322 BC).
- Greek Rule (322- 30 BC).
- Roman & Byzantine Rule (30 BC- 640 AD).
- The early Islamic period (64- 969 AD).
- The Fatimid Period (969- 1171 AD).
- Ayyubid Rule (1171- 1250 AD).
- The Mamluk Period (1250- 1517 AD).
- Ottoman Rule (1517- 1798 AD).
- European Conquest (1798- 1802 AD) – Napoleon's Expedition to Egypt.
- The Dynasty of Mohammad Ali Pasha (1802- 1892).
- British Occupation (1882- 1952 AD).
- Egyptian Revolution – the Rule of Naguib (1952- 1956).
- The Rule of Nasser (1956- 1970 AD).
- The Rule of Sadat (1970- 1981).
- The Rule of Mubarak (1981- Present).
Arabia Before Islam
• Nomads inhabited the majority of the Arabian Peninsula- and they were constantly engaged in feudal battles.
• They lived in tents- and each tent represented an entire family.
• A tribe was an independent community, which consisted of a large number of families who were inter-related by marriage, and there was a strong bondage.
• A Sheikh was the leader of each tribe and he was selected by such considerations as age, personality, character, wisdom and courage. Blood and family bonds were determining factors in his selection.
• Agriculture: the Bedouins needed water fro growing wheat and barley, and grazing camel and sheep. Palm trees grew in Oman and Hijaz, wheat in Yemen, fruit in Medina (Yathrib) and Taif Gum and Acacia trees in Dhufar and Asir.
• Trade: the Arabs were famed traders. Their trade routes extended from north to south with two main extensions- one to Egypt, and the other to Syria and Palestine.
• The Arab caravans were well organized. All men and women, rich and poor, contributed to the caravan's financing. Te caravans were well guarded since they were frequently attacked by Bedouins tribes.
• The caravans carried Indian spices, swords, Persians pearls, and Chinese skill, Slaves, ivory, gold and ostrich feathers were brought from East Africa.
• Journey: Mecca was the most important trading post. There were two major annual journeys – one in winter to Yemen and the other in the summer to Syria and Egypt.
• Markets: the most important markets were "Ukazh and Dhi-Majaz" they were also used as a forum for literary competition in poetry and oratory.
• Arab Traditions: Arabs were brought up in strict tribal traditions. Some of their traits were, by present standards, cruel and unjust.
o They buried their newborn girls (believing that females were a source of shame).
o They indulged in whine and gambling.
o They had many wives and concubines.
o Arab Religion: There were some Christians and Jews in the Arab Peninsula, but most were a minority. Most of the Arabs were pagan and worshipped different gods or idols. These idols were made of stone or wood. They Ka'bah was the center of worship where the main idols. Hubal, Allat and Al-Uzza were venerated. Each tribe had its own idol. Some Arabs (Sabians) worshipped stairs and planets.
o Islam came to eradicate idolatry and teach the Arabs monotheism.
o Poetry: The Arabs were talented in poetry and they had special celebrations during which poetic competitions were held. The best poems were mounted on the walls of the K'abah and known as Mu'allakat (that which is hung). An Arabic alphabet was created using Al-Musnad calligraphy (Southern Arabian dialect) and Nebtic calligraphy (Northern Arabian dialect). The latter was the dialect of the Holy Qur'an.
The Tribe of Quraish
Mohammad belonged to the tribe of Quraish which was one of the noblest and wealthiest arab tribes. They tribe of Quraish would offer food and water to pilgrims, and were used to settle tribal conflicts. They resided in Mecca, and were custodians of the Ka'abah.
When Mohammad began to preach the teachings of Islam, this tribe opposed him. They were mainly concerned about the loss of revenue of the pilgrimage to the Ka'abah and the economic impact this might have on them. At the time the Ka'abah was used for the worship of idols. They feared that the spread of Islam would put their idols and traditions in jeopardy. They therefore persecuted Mohammad and tried to kill. For this reason, he escaped to Yathrib (Medina). This escape is known as the Hijra (immigration) and it occurred in 622 AD. This year is the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
The most important people in history
• when one looks at world history and asks the question – who are the most important people? A difficult question – and it depends on what one consider important. If we can consider that it is the people who have done the most good for the most number of people then the answer may be a little simpler.
• One would say that the religious leaders are most important (Moses, Jesus and Mohammad) followed by the philosophers (Aristotle Plato, Socrates). Both these groups taught people the essence of the good life and the value of ethics.
• Another group of people would be the scientists and scholars who have invented things which have made our life better, simpler and longer. This would include Bacon, Descartes, Einstein, Salk. And other people who invented the wheel the plough, the clock, the calendar.
• Of less importance are the military leaders. They are viewed as a "passing phenomenon" and all their conquests return back to the original people.
• How much of Persia, Egypt and Afghanistan is still Greek (Alexander)?
• How much France (Gaul) is Roman (Julius Caesar)?
• Which part of Russia or Austria is still French (Napoleon)?
Biography of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH)?
• Mohammad is the last of the prophets. Since his history is more recent, much is known about hum.
• He was born in Mecca 570 CE. His father, Abdullah, died several weeks before his birth in Yathrib (Medina).
• His mother died when he was six years old and he was raised by his paternal grandfather Abdel Muttalib until the age of eight. His paternal uncle, raised him.
• Mohammad was literate, but began to earn a living as a trader in the merchant caravans.
• Mohammad was given the nickname "Al-Ameen" for his impeccable character. "Al-Amin" means honest.
• Khadijah, a rich widow, employed Mohammad as a caravan merchant. Soon after the trip, khadijah (40 years old) and Mohamed (PBUH) "PBUH" (25 years old) were married.
• They had 6 children, 4 daughters (Zeinab, Raqayyah, Umm Kalthoum and Fatma) and 2 sons (Qasim and Abdullah).
• When Mohammad (PBUH) was 40, he would meditate in a retreat at Mount Hira. During the month of Ramadan he was visited by the angel Gabriel and received revelations. It was through these revelations that the Holy Book (The Qur'an) was revealed to Mohammad. These revelations continued for 23 years.
• The Prophet's saying are recorded separately in collection known as the "Hadith".
• This mission of the prophet Mohammad was to restore the worship of one true God as taught by Abraham (Ibrahim) and all God's Prophets.
• The Qur'an also sets laws: "Sharia" governing moral, ethical, legal and social conduct.
• The first converts to Islam were his cousin Ali, his servant Zayd Ibn Harithah, his friend AbuBakr, his wife and daughters. In the three years of his mission 40 people accepted Islam.
• The tribe of Quraish were guardians to the K'aban which was used for trade and idolatry worship. There were 360 different idols. They felt threatened by this new movement and began to prosecute Mohammad (PBUH) and his followers.
• In 622 CE. The leaders of Quraish decided to kill the Prophet. He learned of the plan and escaped with his friend AbuBakr to Yathrib (Medina). This event is known as the Hijra (migration). The Islamic calendar begins with this event.
• In Medina, the prophet proposed a treaty defining terms of conduct for Moslems. Non-Moslem Arabs and Jews. This treaty was ratified by all. The Moslems, under the leadership of the prophet fought several battles including Badr. Uhud, and (Allies) Trenches. These battles continued until 627 CE.
• In 628 CE, the prophet with fifteen hundred of his companions of his companions left for Mecca to perform the annual pilgrims.
• They were barred from approaching the city at Hudaybiyah, where, after negotiations, a treaty was signed allowing them to come next year.
• In 629 CE, the prophet entered Mecca with ten thousand Moslems. The army entered the city without fighting. Mohammad (PBUH) went directly to the Ka'abah received his last revelations, and to months later he fell ill, and after several days died on June 8 (632 CE) in Medina. He is buried in the same place where he died.
• Mohammad lived a simple, austere and modest life. He played many roles including, head of state, chief of justice, commander-in chief, arbitrator and negotiator and family man.
• At the time of his death, he had some simple possessions (mats, blankets, jugs), a mule, and a piece of land that he had gifted during his lifetime.
• Among his last words were "We the community of Prophets are not inherited. Whatever we leave is for charity".
So, strong was his message of faith that within 90 years the light of Islam reached Spain. North Africa, Asia Minor, India and Northeast China.
Major events in the life of prophet Mohammad
The final messenger of Allah (The one true God)
Event Date A. H. Date C. E.
* Birth of prophet Mohammad 570
* Death of Aminah (Prophet's Mother) 576
* Death of Abd Al-Muttalib (prophet's Grandfather). 578
* Journey to Syria (with his uncle Abu Talib) 582
* Marriage to Khadijah 595
* First Revelation 610
* EmigrationMoslems to Abyssinia 615
of * Embargo and Boycott of Banu Hashim family) by Quraish 617-620
* eath of Abu Talib (Prophets uncle) 620
* Death of Khadija 620
* Mir'aj (Ascension) 621
* Prophet's emigration to Yathrib 12th Rabi'al Awwal, 1AH Sept. 24, 622
* treaty with Jews and Non Moslems in Medina 1AH 622
* The change of Qiblah Rajab, 2AH January 624
* Battle of Badr 17th Ramadan 2AH March 13, 624
* Battle of Uhud 15th, Shawwal, 3AH March, 625
* Battle of Ahzab Shawwal & Dhul Qa'dah 5AH Feb.-Mar, 627
* Treaty of Hudaibiyah Dhul Qa'dah 6AH March, 628
* invitation of kings & world leaders Dhul Hijjah, 6AH Apr.-MAY, 628
* Performance of Missed Umrah Dhul Qa'dah, 7AH March, 629
* Khaled Ibn Al-Waleed & Amr al-'As join Islam. Safar, 8AH June, 629
* Opening of Mecca Ramadan, 8AH Dec. 629, Jan. 630
* Last Revelation Dhul Hijja, 10AH Feb.-Mar, 632
* Hajjat al-Wada (farewell Pilgrimage) Dhul Hijjah, 10AH June 8, 632
* Death of Prophet Mohammad Monday 12th Rabi'al-Awwal, 11AH June 8, 632
Comments about the prophet Mohammad (PBUH)
Michael Hart. "The 10-A Ranking of the most influence persons in history". (1978, 1992- Carol Publishing Group).
Mohammad was born in 570 AD in Southern Arabia, at that time backward area of the world. He was orphaned and uneducated (illiterate). The Arab Bedouins were disunited and constantly at war with each other. However, unified by Mohammad for the first time in history, and inspired by their belief in the one true God (Allah), this small army now embarked upon one of the most astonishing series of conquests in human history. To the Northeast lay the Persian empire (Sessanid), to the Northwest lay the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire, centered in Constantinople). Numerically, the Arabs were no match for their opponents, on the field of battle it was a different story. Within a few short years the Arabs had conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa and most of Iberia (Spain).
- "Further, these conquests are permanent, all countries (with the exception of Spain) have Islam as their main religion and speak Arabic.
- Mohammad was responsible to a large extent for the moral and ethical principles of this new religion. It is probable that the relative influence of Mohammad (PBUH) on Islam has been larger than the combined influence of Jesus Christ and St. Paul on Christianity".
The Holy Qur'an
- In Moslem belief, the Holy Qur'an (al'qur'an al-karim) is the undisputed word of God. Himself is the Author.
- In the Qur'an, God is responsible for all things- man is insignificant- and therefore submission to the Will of God- Islam= submission – is paramount. Everyone follows his own destiny.
- The Qur'an was revealed to Mohammad (PBUH) in the year 610AD, while meditating in the cave of Hira. This occurred in the last nights of the month of Ramadan (27th Ramadan)- and is called Laylat Al-Kadr. On that night, the Angle Gabeirl descended upon the Prophet (PBUH) while he was asleep- and the recitation began.
- Today Ihave perfected your religion for you, and have completed My blessings upon you, and have approved yourreligion". e recitation continued until March 632AD- a few months before the prophet's death (PBUH) on June 8, 632AD. The revelations ended with these words
- The Qur'an is part prose and part poetry, unique in its structure, it consists of 114 chapters (Surah) Each surah is composed of cerses (Ayat).
- The Qur'an was written down in part during its revelations, but above all it was committed to memory. It was collected from the chance surfaces on which it had been inscribed" "from pieces of papyrus, flat stones, palm leaves, shoulder blades, and ribs of animals, pieces of leather, wooden boards, and the hearts of men".
- A definitive editing was carried out by the Caliph Osman Ibn Affan (3rd, Caliph).
- The Qur'an defines Moslems as descendants of Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Ismail (Ismael). It contains laws for society, commandments descriptions of judgment day, and Heaven and Hell.
- It contains stories of Biblical figures but often surprisingly different from that of the Hebrew Scriptures, as if the same events were being witnessed from a different point of view. It also contains stories of figures unknown to the Bible.
- The revelations in the Qur'an are identified as having been revealed either at Mecca, or at Medina. The earlier Meccan revelation have a more poetic, forceful and enthusiastic character, throwing forth powerful images, of the world's end.
- The Medina revelations are more like the calm after the storm, and deal mainly with the giving of laws.
- The Qur'an is difficult to translate because of the nature of Arabic as the sacred language. The spiritual character, or blessing- Barakah- is lost in the translation. Translations are therefore not usable for ritual purposes.
- The Qur'an is the foundation and primary source of Islam. It is followed by the Hadith (tradition and sayings of the prophet) andf Sunnah (Prophet's example).
Introduction
Few people understand that Islam has a glorious history. It was the center of a great civilization at a time when Europe lived in the "Dark Ages". This civilization produced great military leaders who conquered most of the old world- from Spain in the west to China in the East. It also produced great Philosophers and Scientists.
It is the purpose to educate our young children about their history and heritage and also to educate those who not aware of this great history.
Egyptian History
- Pre-Dynastic history.
- The early Dynastic or Archaic period (3100- 2688 B. C.).
- The old kingdom (2686- 2181 BC).
- The first intermediate period (2181- 2050 BC).
- The middle kingdom (2050- 1786 BC).
- The second intermediate period (1786- 1567 B. C.).
- The late period (1085 – 322 BC).
- Greek Rule (322- 30 BC).
- Roman & Byzantine Rule (30 BC- 640 AD).
- The early Islamic period (64- 969 AD).
- The Fatimid Period (969- 1171 AD).
- Ayyubid Rule (1171- 1250 AD).
- The Mamluk Period (1250- 1517 AD).
- Ottoman Rule (1517- 1798 AD).
- European Conquest (1798- 1802 AD) – Napoleon's Expedition to Egypt.
- The Dynasty of Mohammad Ali Pasha (1802- 1892).
- British Occupation (1882- 1952 AD).
- Egyptian Revolution – the Rule of Naguib (1952- 1956).
- The Rule of Nasser (1956- 1970 AD).
- The Rule of Sadat (1970- 1981).
- The Rule of Mubarak (1981- Present).
Arabia Before Islam
• Nomads inhabited the majority of the Arabian Peninsula- and they were constantly engaged in feudal battles.
• They lived in tents- and each tent represented an entire family.
• A tribe was an independent community, which consisted of a large number of families who were inter-related by marriage, and there was a strong bondage.
• A Sheikh was the leader of each tribe and he was selected by such considerations as age, personality, character, wisdom and courage. Blood and family bonds were determining factors in his selection.
• Agriculture: the Bedouins needed water fro growing wheat and barley, and grazing camel and sheep. Palm trees grew in Oman and Hijaz, wheat in Yemen, fruit in Medina (Yathrib) and Taif Gum and Acacia trees in Dhufar and Asir.
• Trade: the Arabs were famed traders. Their trade routes extended from north to south with two main extensions- one to Egypt, and the other to Syria and Palestine.
• The Arab caravans were well organized. All men and women, rich and poor, contributed to the caravan's financing. Te caravans were well guarded since they were frequently attacked by Bedouins tribes.
• The caravans carried Indian spices, swords, Persians pearls, and Chinese skill, Slaves, ivory, gold and ostrich feathers were brought from East Africa.
• Journey: Mecca was the most important trading post. There were two major annual journeys – one in winter to Yemen and the other in the summer to Syria and Egypt.
• Markets: the most important markets were "Ukazh and Dhi-Majaz" they were also used as a forum for literary competition in poetry and oratory.
• Arab Traditions: Arabs were brought up in strict tribal traditions. Some of their traits were, by present standards, cruel and unjust.
o They buried their newborn girls (believing that females were a source of shame).
o They indulged in whine and gambling.
o They had many wives and concubines.
o Arab Religion: There were some Christians and Jews in the Arab Peninsula, but most were a minority. Most of the Arabs were pagan and worshipped different gods or idols. These idols were made of stone or wood. They Ka'bah was the center of worship where the main idols. Hubal, Allat and Al-Uzza were venerated. Each tribe had its own idol. Some Arabs (Sabians) worshipped stairs and planets.
o Islam came to eradicate idolatry and teach the Arabs monotheism.
o Poetry: The Arabs were talented in poetry and they had special celebrations during which poetic competitions were held. The best poems were mounted on the walls of the K'abah and known as Mu'allakat (that which is hung). An Arabic alphabet was created using Al-Musnad calligraphy (Southern Arabian dialect) and Nebtic calligraphy (Northern Arabian dialect). The latter was the dialect of the Holy Qur'an.
The Tribe of Quraish
Mohammad belonged to the tribe of Quraish which was one of the noblest and wealthiest arab tribes. They tribe of Quraish would offer food and water to pilgrims, and were used to settle tribal conflicts. They resided in Mecca, and were custodians of the Ka'abah.
When Mohammad began to preach the teachings of Islam, this tribe opposed him. They were mainly concerned about the loss of revenue of the pilgrimage to the Ka'abah and the economic impact this might have on them. At the time the Ka'abah was used for the worship of idols. They feared that the spread of Islam would put their idols and traditions in jeopardy. They therefore persecuted Mohammad and tried to kill. For this reason, he escaped to Yathrib (Medina). This escape is known as the Hijra (immigration) and it occurred in 622 AD. This year is the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
The most important people in history
• when one looks at world history and asks the question – who are the most important people? A difficult question – and it depends on what one consider important. If we can consider that it is the people who have done the most good for the most number of people then the answer may be a little simpler.
• One would say that the religious leaders are most important (Moses, Jesus and Mohammad) followed by the philosophers (Aristotle Plato, Socrates). Both these groups taught people the essence of the good life and the value of ethics.
• Another group of people would be the scientists and scholars who have invented things which have made our life better, simpler and longer. This would include Bacon, Descartes, Einstein, Salk. And other people who invented the wheel the plough, the clock, the calendar.
• Of less importance are the military leaders. They are viewed as a "passing phenomenon" and all their conquests return back to the original people.
• How much of Persia, Egypt and Afghanistan is still Greek (Alexander)?
• How much France (Gaul) is Roman (Julius Caesar)?
• Which part of Russia or Austria is still French (Napoleon)?
Biography of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH)?
• Mohammad is the last of the prophets. Since his history is more recent, much is known about hum.
• He was born in Mecca 570 CE. His father, Abdullah, died several weeks before his birth in Yathrib (Medina).
• His mother died when he was six years old and he was raised by his paternal grandfather Abdel Muttalib until the age of eight. His paternal uncle, raised him.
• Mohammad was literate, but began to earn a living as a trader in the merchant caravans.
• Mohammad was given the nickname "Al-Ameen" for his impeccable character. "Al-Amin" means honest.
• Khadijah, a rich widow, employed Mohammad as a caravan merchant. Soon after the trip, khadijah (40 years old) and Mohamed (PBUH) "PBUH" (25 years old) were married.
• They had 6 children, 4 daughters (Zeinab, Raqayyah, Umm Kalthoum and Fatma) and 2 sons (Qasim and Abdullah).
• When Mohammad (PBUH) was 40, he would meditate in a retreat at Mount Hira. During the month of Ramadan he was visited by the angel Gabriel and received revelations. It was through these revelations that the Holy Book (The Qur'an) was revealed to Mohammad. These revelations continued for 23 years.
• The Prophet's saying are recorded separately in collection known as the "Hadith".
• This mission of the prophet Mohammad was to restore the worship of one true God as taught by Abraham (Ibrahim) and all God's Prophets.
• The Qur'an also sets laws: "Sharia" governing moral, ethical, legal and social conduct.
• The first converts to Islam were his cousin Ali, his servant Zayd Ibn Harithah, his friend AbuBakr, his wife and daughters. In the three years of his mission 40 people accepted Islam.
• The tribe of Quraish were guardians to the K'aban which was used for trade and idolatry worship. There were 360 different idols. They felt threatened by this new movement and began to prosecute Mohammad (PBUH) and his followers.
• In 622 CE. The leaders of Quraish decided to kill the Prophet. He learned of the plan and escaped with his friend AbuBakr to Yathrib (Medina). This event is known as the Hijra (migration). The Islamic calendar begins with this event.
• In Medina, the prophet proposed a treaty defining terms of conduct for Moslems. Non-Moslem Arabs and Jews. This treaty was ratified by all. The Moslems, under the leadership of the prophet fought several battles including Badr. Uhud, and (Allies) Trenches. These battles continued until 627 CE.
• In 628 CE, the prophet with fifteen hundred of his companions of his companions left for Mecca to perform the annual pilgrims.
• They were barred from approaching the city at Hudaybiyah, where, after negotiations, a treaty was signed allowing them to come next year.
• In 629 CE, the prophet entered Mecca with ten thousand Moslems. The army entered the city without fighting. Mohammad (PBUH) went directly to the Ka'abah received his last revelations, and to months later he fell ill, and after several days died on June 8 (632 CE) in Medina. He is buried in the same place where he died.
• Mohammad lived a simple, austere and modest life. He played many roles including, head of state, chief of justice, commander-in chief, arbitrator and negotiator and family man.
• At the time of his death, he had some simple possessions (mats, blankets, jugs), a mule, and a piece of land that he had gifted during his lifetime.
• Among his last words were "We the community of Prophets are not inherited. Whatever we leave is for charity".
So, strong was his message of faith that within 90 years the light of Islam reached Spain. North Africa, Asia Minor, India and Northeast China.
Major events in the life of prophet Mohammad
The final messenger of Allah (The one true God)
Event Date A. H. Date C. E.
* Birth of prophet Mohammad 570
* Death of Aminah (Prophet's Mother) 576
* Death of Abd Al-Muttalib (prophet's Grandfather). 578
* Journey to Syria (with his uncle Abu Talib) 582
* Marriage to Khadijah 595
* First Revelation 610
* EmigrationMoslems to Abyssinia 615
of * Embargo and Boycott of Banu Hashim family) by Quraish 617-620
* eath of Abu Talib (Prophets uncle) 620
* Death of Khadija 620
* Mir'aj (Ascension) 621
* Prophet's emigration to Yathrib 12th Rabi'al Awwal, 1AH Sept. 24, 622
* treaty with Jews and Non Moslems in Medina 1AH 622
* The change of Qiblah Rajab, 2AH January 624
* Battle of Badr 17th Ramadan 2AH March 13, 624
* Battle of Uhud 15th, Shawwal, 3AH March, 625
* Battle of Ahzab Shawwal & Dhul Qa'dah 5AH Feb.-Mar, 627
* Treaty of Hudaibiyah Dhul Qa'dah 6AH March, 628
* invitation of kings & world leaders Dhul Hijjah, 6AH Apr.-MAY, 628
* Performance of Missed Umrah Dhul Qa'dah, 7AH March, 629
* Khaled Ibn Al-Waleed & Amr al-'As join Islam. Safar, 8AH June, 629
* Opening of Mecca Ramadan, 8AH Dec. 629, Jan. 630
* Last Revelation Dhul Hijja, 10AH Feb.-Mar, 632
* Hajjat al-Wada (farewell Pilgrimage) Dhul Hijjah, 10AH June 8, 632
* Death of Prophet Mohammad Monday 12th Rabi'al-Awwal, 11AH June 8, 632
Comments about the prophet Mohammad (PBUH)
Michael Hart. "The 10-A Ranking of the most influence persons in history". (1978, 1992- Carol Publishing Group).
Mohammad was born in 570 AD in Southern Arabia, at that time backward area of the world. He was orphaned and uneducated (illiterate). The Arab Bedouins were disunited and constantly at war with each other. However, unified by Mohammad for the first time in history, and inspired by their belief in the one true God (Allah), this small army now embarked upon one of the most astonishing series of conquests in human history. To the Northeast lay the Persian empire (Sessanid), to the Northwest lay the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire, centered in Constantinople). Numerically, the Arabs were no match for their opponents, on the field of battle it was a different story. Within a few short years the Arabs had conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa and most of Iberia (Spain).
- "Further, these conquests are permanent, all countries (with the exception of Spain) have Islam as their main religion and speak Arabic.
- Mohammad was responsible to a large extent for the moral and ethical principles of this new religion. It is probable that the relative influence of Mohammad (PBUH) on Islam has been larger than the combined influence of Jesus Christ and St. Paul on Christianity".
The Holy Qur'an
- In Moslem belief, the Holy Qur'an (al'qur'an al-karim) is the undisputed word of God. Himself is the Author.
- In the Qur'an, God is responsible for all things- man is insignificant- and therefore submission to the Will of God- Islam= submission – is paramount. Everyone follows his own destiny.
- The Qur'an was revealed to Mohammad (PBUH) in the year 610AD, while meditating in the cave of Hira. This occurred in the last nights of the month of Ramadan (27th Ramadan)- and is called Laylat Al-Kadr. On that night, the Angle Gabeirl descended upon the Prophet (PBUH) while he was asleep- and the recitation began.
- Today Ihave perfected your religion for you, and have completed My blessings upon you, and have approved yourreligion". e recitation continued until March 632AD- a few months before the prophet's death (PBUH) on June 8, 632AD. The revelations ended with these words
- The Qur'an is part prose and part poetry, unique in its structure, it consists of 114 chapters (Surah) Each surah is composed of cerses (Ayat).
- The Qur'an was written down in part during its revelations, but above all it was committed to memory. It was collected from the chance surfaces on which it had been inscribed" "from pieces of papyrus, flat stones, palm leaves, shoulder blades, and ribs of animals, pieces of leather, wooden boards, and the hearts of men".
- A definitive editing was carried out by the Caliph Osman Ibn Affan (3rd, Caliph).
- The Qur'an defines Moslems as descendants of Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Ismail (Ismael). It contains laws for society, commandments descriptions of judgment day, and Heaven and Hell.
- It contains stories of Biblical figures but often surprisingly different from that of the Hebrew Scriptures, as if the same events were being witnessed from a different point of view. It also contains stories of figures unknown to the Bible.
- The revelations in the Qur'an are identified as having been revealed either at Mecca, or at Medina. The earlier Meccan revelation have a more poetic, forceful and enthusiastic character, throwing forth powerful images, of the world's end.
- The Medina revelations are more like the calm after the storm, and deal mainly with the giving of laws.
- The Qur'an is difficult to translate because of the nature of Arabic as the sacred language. The spiritual character, or blessing- Barakah- is lost in the translation. Translations are therefore not usable for ritual purposes.
- The Qur'an is the foundation and primary source of Islam. It is followed by the Hadith (tradition and sayings of the prophet) andf Sunnah (Prophet's example).
Friday, April 10, 2009
Who was Jesus? (peace be upon him)
there are many questions that come to mind when the name Jesus is mentioned.
Some people say he was a prophet, others call him a god, while others say he was a very wise man. But whatever your idea is, one thing remains certain; he was not your ordinary man. So if there is something special about him, why all the confusion?
Just who Jesus anyway?
In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful
His Origins
Jesus lived about 2.000 years ago in ancient Palestine when the Roman Empire was at its Zenith. He was not conceived in the usual way, but was implanted in the womb of a young woman named Mary. God simply commanded, "Be" and he was. In this sense, he was "a word" of God and a special sign for humanity. In fact, he was the last in a long line of religious guides sent to the Jews.
Mary, The Blessed
Mary was a righteous woman. Her mother dedicated her to God's service even before she born. As a child, she lived a life marked by health and righteousness, which others pointed to in admiration, she was raised by the wise Zechariah, who instilled in her, a beautiful sense of faith in God. When she had become a young woman, Mary sought to purify herself further before her Lord. Knowing that the hustle of life in the towns was distracting, she withdrew from her people to a sanctuary in the East. There she could meditate in seclusion and peace. Suddenly, on a day that seemed no different from the rest, and angel of God visited her, disguised in the likeness of a human. Afraid of so strange a sight, Mary prayed for protection, but the strange reassured her and declared that he was a messenger from the Lord to announce the glad-tidings of a faultless son. Mary, astounded, asked how this was possible seeing that no man had ever touched her. But the angel replied, "Your says, it is easy for Me…". But when she felt the little child within her, she fled her sanctuary out of fear of what her family would do or say when they heard the news. Mary, however, was not to face hardship. When in her despair she cried out to God for oblivion, a voice soothed her and she found shade and a cool spring. Under a date-palm in the warmth of late summer, she made her dwelling and there bore the child unlike any other in human history.
Shortly thereafter, Mary returned to her community carrying the child who was to be called Messiah, Jesus, and son of Mary. When her people saw her with the baby in her arms they couldn’t believe their eyes, let alone accept her word. They refused to believe when she told of an angel who came and told her she was chosen above all other women to carry this burden. They accused her of infidelity and implied that she had ruined the family name. Mary, being overwhelmed, simply motioned towards the child meekly.
The miracles
Now the child was the product of a miracle and consequently, miraculous things began to happen. In defense of his mother and of the truth, the infant Jesus spoke saying, "I am a servant of God. He has given me Scripture and has made me a Prophet, He has blessed me wherever I may be and has made prayer and charity my duty as long as I live. "this put the detractors of rest.
Throughout his youth, Jesus remained dutiful to his mother and developed quickly in intelligence, wisdom, and piety. He dumfounded the learned and was greatly admired by those around him who appreciated his talents. He claimed to be a sign of God and a Messenger to the Israelites.
His people has strayed from the spirit of truth and placed their trust in legalism, thereby burying their sense of mercy beneath dusty scrolls and rituals. Finally when he came of age, Jesus began to travel and preach throughout the land of Palestine about a return to the truth of the old revelations and a rejection of all man had added. In this task he was supported by the spirit of truth, the angel Gabriel.
The Gospel, His Message
He taught that love and mercy overcome hate and anger and that only a true and sincere faith in the Creator and obedience to His will can bring a person salvation in this life as well as in the next. To reinforce his message, which was called "Injeel" (Good News), God granted him the performance of miracles. He healed the sick, uplifted the distressed and revived the dead. All these things he did with the permission of God, never taking credit for them himself.
He led a simple and pious life. Soon he attracted an inner-circle of devoted followers who listened to his teachings with fervor and humility. These disciples, among them Peter, Barnabas, and John helped him carry the message of Divine Lobe to the people. They helped him in his mission.
A Test of Wills
But no righteous man of God is without trial and tribulation. As the message of Jesus began to gain wider acceptance, a small clique of hypocrites and evil men began to plot against him. They were the priests and leaders of the Jews whose position and wealth depended upon their place as the sole interpreters of religion to the masses. They pursued him and his followers and eventually captured him.
Though they abused him, he never renounced his faith in the one God. So in their anger they plotted to crucify him on a Roman cross. But Jesus slipped from their grip at the last moment, and all the while the thought they had succeeded. They were sure they had killed him but God answered Jesus' prayer and saved him from their schemes. Confusion overtook the mob and they might have killed the man who betrayed Jesus instead. In any case, Jesus escaped from their grasp. Then God removed Jesus from this world another dimension, to a place with Him, not to return until a later time.
With their teacher gone, the devoted followers of Jesus tried to maintain the purity and simplicity of his teachings. But they were soon besieged and overtaken by a flood of Roman and Greek influences, which eventually so buried and distorted the message of Jesus that only a little of its truth now remains. Strange doctrines of Jesus being a man-god, of God dying, of saint worship and of God being made up of different parts came into vogue and were accepted by many of those who took the name "Christians" centuries after Jesus.
Conclusion
The only records that have come down to us concerning Jesus are some sketchy biographical material, poorly researched and complied, which can in no way be representative of the full and accurate Message of Jesus, the Son of Mary. The time of the final and incorruptible Message was not yet at hand. It would be left to the last prophet of God. Muhammad (peace of upon him), to clarify the truth from man's additions and deletions.
Jesus taught the same eternal message that was taught by all the Messengers of God, from Adam, on through Noah, Abraham, Moses and ending with the mission of God's last Guidepost to humanity, Muhammad (peace be on them all), whose coming was foretold by Jesus himself.
Every nation and every people, from the Aztecs to the Greeks, have received a Prophet or a Messenger from God. Jesus was the last of a series of Messengers sent to the Israelites, but they consistently strayed from the path of surrender to God. Each of the many Messengers spoke a different language and followed varied customs. Yet the core faith taught by each was the same: surrender your imperfect and fickle with to the perfect will of the Power that is greater than you. You will then find the peace and freedom that only the Creator of all things can provide. Then you must do what is right and good to your fellow creatures. This way of life is called Islam (surrender of God and find peace).
By Yahiya Emerick
Some people say he was a prophet, others call him a god, while others say he was a very wise man. But whatever your idea is, one thing remains certain; he was not your ordinary man. So if there is something special about him, why all the confusion?
Just who Jesus anyway?
In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful
His Origins
Jesus lived about 2.000 years ago in ancient Palestine when the Roman Empire was at its Zenith. He was not conceived in the usual way, but was implanted in the womb of a young woman named Mary. God simply commanded, "Be" and he was. In this sense, he was "a word" of God and a special sign for humanity. In fact, he was the last in a long line of religious guides sent to the Jews.
Mary, The Blessed
Mary was a righteous woman. Her mother dedicated her to God's service even before she born. As a child, she lived a life marked by health and righteousness, which others pointed to in admiration, she was raised by the wise Zechariah, who instilled in her, a beautiful sense of faith in God. When she had become a young woman, Mary sought to purify herself further before her Lord. Knowing that the hustle of life in the towns was distracting, she withdrew from her people to a sanctuary in the East. There she could meditate in seclusion and peace. Suddenly, on a day that seemed no different from the rest, and angel of God visited her, disguised in the likeness of a human. Afraid of so strange a sight, Mary prayed for protection, but the strange reassured her and declared that he was a messenger from the Lord to announce the glad-tidings of a faultless son. Mary, astounded, asked how this was possible seeing that no man had ever touched her. But the angel replied, "Your says, it is easy for Me…". But when she felt the little child within her, she fled her sanctuary out of fear of what her family would do or say when they heard the news. Mary, however, was not to face hardship. When in her despair she cried out to God for oblivion, a voice soothed her and she found shade and a cool spring. Under a date-palm in the warmth of late summer, she made her dwelling and there bore the child unlike any other in human history.
Shortly thereafter, Mary returned to her community carrying the child who was to be called Messiah, Jesus, and son of Mary. When her people saw her with the baby in her arms they couldn’t believe their eyes, let alone accept her word. They refused to believe when she told of an angel who came and told her she was chosen above all other women to carry this burden. They accused her of infidelity and implied that she had ruined the family name. Mary, being overwhelmed, simply motioned towards the child meekly.
The miracles
Now the child was the product of a miracle and consequently, miraculous things began to happen. In defense of his mother and of the truth, the infant Jesus spoke saying, "I am a servant of God. He has given me Scripture and has made me a Prophet, He has blessed me wherever I may be and has made prayer and charity my duty as long as I live. "this put the detractors of rest.
Throughout his youth, Jesus remained dutiful to his mother and developed quickly in intelligence, wisdom, and piety. He dumfounded the learned and was greatly admired by those around him who appreciated his talents. He claimed to be a sign of God and a Messenger to the Israelites.
His people has strayed from the spirit of truth and placed their trust in legalism, thereby burying their sense of mercy beneath dusty scrolls and rituals. Finally when he came of age, Jesus began to travel and preach throughout the land of Palestine about a return to the truth of the old revelations and a rejection of all man had added. In this task he was supported by the spirit of truth, the angel Gabriel.
The Gospel, His Message
He taught that love and mercy overcome hate and anger and that only a true and sincere faith in the Creator and obedience to His will can bring a person salvation in this life as well as in the next. To reinforce his message, which was called "Injeel" (Good News), God granted him the performance of miracles. He healed the sick, uplifted the distressed and revived the dead. All these things he did with the permission of God, never taking credit for them himself.
He led a simple and pious life. Soon he attracted an inner-circle of devoted followers who listened to his teachings with fervor and humility. These disciples, among them Peter, Barnabas, and John helped him carry the message of Divine Lobe to the people. They helped him in his mission.
A Test of Wills
But no righteous man of God is without trial and tribulation. As the message of Jesus began to gain wider acceptance, a small clique of hypocrites and evil men began to plot against him. They were the priests and leaders of the Jews whose position and wealth depended upon their place as the sole interpreters of religion to the masses. They pursued him and his followers and eventually captured him.
Though they abused him, he never renounced his faith in the one God. So in their anger they plotted to crucify him on a Roman cross. But Jesus slipped from their grip at the last moment, and all the while the thought they had succeeded. They were sure they had killed him but God answered Jesus' prayer and saved him from their schemes. Confusion overtook the mob and they might have killed the man who betrayed Jesus instead. In any case, Jesus escaped from their grasp. Then God removed Jesus from this world another dimension, to a place with Him, not to return until a later time.
With their teacher gone, the devoted followers of Jesus tried to maintain the purity and simplicity of his teachings. But they were soon besieged and overtaken by a flood of Roman and Greek influences, which eventually so buried and distorted the message of Jesus that only a little of its truth now remains. Strange doctrines of Jesus being a man-god, of God dying, of saint worship and of God being made up of different parts came into vogue and were accepted by many of those who took the name "Christians" centuries after Jesus.
Conclusion
The only records that have come down to us concerning Jesus are some sketchy biographical material, poorly researched and complied, which can in no way be representative of the full and accurate Message of Jesus, the Son of Mary. The time of the final and incorruptible Message was not yet at hand. It would be left to the last prophet of God. Muhammad (peace of upon him), to clarify the truth from man's additions and deletions.
Jesus taught the same eternal message that was taught by all the Messengers of God, from Adam, on through Noah, Abraham, Moses and ending with the mission of God's last Guidepost to humanity, Muhammad (peace be on them all), whose coming was foretold by Jesus himself.
Every nation and every people, from the Aztecs to the Greeks, have received a Prophet or a Messenger from God. Jesus was the last of a series of Messengers sent to the Israelites, but they consistently strayed from the path of surrender to God. Each of the many Messengers spoke a different language and followed varied customs. Yet the core faith taught by each was the same: surrender your imperfect and fickle with to the perfect will of the Power that is greater than you. You will then find the peace and freedom that only the Creator of all things can provide. Then you must do what is right and good to your fellow creatures. This way of life is called Islam (surrender of God and find peace).
By Yahiya Emerick
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